Learning in vivo

Regulations about Skills Development Funds received and spending

On 1 April 2013 new regulations (RSA 2012) about monies received by Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs); mandatory and discretionary grants; proportion of administration costs; discouraging accumulation of surpluses; and related came into effect. Simultaneously the previous grant regulations were repealed, namely Government Notice No R713 in Government Gazette No 27801 of 18 July 2005 and Government Notice No R88 in Government Gazette No 29584 of 2 February 2007.

Of particular importance to higher education programmes that contains work-integrated learning in the curriculum is §6 (pp. 11-13), “allocation of discretionary grants by a SETA”:

• §6(12)—“at least 80% of discretionary grant funding must be allocated to PIVOTAL programmes”, which are defined (p. 5) as an acronym meaning “professional, vocational, technical and academic learning programmes that result in qualifications or part qualifications on the National Qualifications Framework …” [also §3(6)]
• §6(11)—addressing scarce and critical skills through programmes designed to address such, which include work-integrated learning must be the key focus of SETAs. Work-integrated learning is defined (p. 6) as an umbrella term for curricular, pedagogic and assessment practices; integrating formal learning and workplace concerns; culminating in a qualification or part thereof; and may include practicums, professional practice, internships, workplace experience, industry-based learning, cooperative education, service learning, real work learning, placements, experiential learning, and clinical placements
• §6(14)—obtaining the funding above is subject to a legal person completing and submitting a PIVOTAL training plan and report as per annexure 2 (private), sections E & F (pp. 22-23) or (public), sections G & H (pp. 30-31). A legal person [§6(10), p. 12] includes public education and training institutions; an employer or enterprise that falls within the jurisdiction of a SETA, but includes those not required to pay the skills levy; and other such as NGOs [refer to §6(7), p. 12].
• §6(15)—however, employers with less than 50 employees will not have to submit the PIVOTAL training plan and report indicated above, “but will be asked to provide information on participation in PIVOTAL programmes and the impact of these”. SETAs will develop suitable templates for small and micro enterprises.
• Note, however, §7 specifies that the “SETA criteria for grants must be approved by the SETA Accounting Authority before funds are allocated”; and §8 that each SETA is required to prepare and distribute a schedule indicating the dates by which applications for grants must be submitted and the timeframes for disbursements [also §3(7)].
• §6(1-2 & 4-5)—each SETA must develop a Sector Skills Plan (SSP) in accordance to the National Skills Development Strategy and strategic goals; and each SETA must annually approve a Discretionary Grants Policy, developed in accordance to the issued DHET guidelines; which will determine and specify its discretionary grants allocation to meet the sector’s needs through different delivery models and project types that will be deployed.
• §6(3)—each SETA’s Annual Performance Plan (APP) clarifies how discretionary grants are allocated to prioritise skills development of the sector through public education and training institutions.
• §6(9)—the Discretionary Grants Policy of each SETA must “indicate the purpose of the various grants, funding frameworks and projects …”; and give the communication procedures, which must embrace the “principles of transparency, opened, access and fairness” [§6(8)].

The remainder of the regulations deal with (§1) definitions; (§2) specifying the limitations on administrative costs of SETAs; (§3) the compliance of SETA finances and financial management; (§4) the allocation of mandatory grants, and (§5) the payment mandatory grants to levy paying employers; (§9) the payment of services rendered by SETAs; (§10) the repeal of previously published regulations; and (§11) finally the short tile and commencement of the regulations.

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Skills Development Act (97/1998). The Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) grant regulations regarding monies received by a SETA and related matters. Government Gazette Vol. 570; Regulation Gazette No 9867; Government Notice No R990; Gazette No 35940; 3 December 2012. The Government Printing Works.

E-portfolios and assessment via mobile technologies

The South African Council for Higher Education (CHE) imperatives with regard to programme (qualification) accreditation include, among others:

• That the programme must bring about an understanding within students about the specifics of the occupation for which they are being trained.
• That the students should master the techniques and skills required for a specific profession or occupation.
• And where feasible that work-based learning and placement in a work-based environment should form an integral part of the curriculum.

The CHE imperatives with regard to work-integrated learning further include (1) a mentoring system that enables the student to recognise her/his strengths and weaknesses in his/her work, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices; as well as (2) regular and systematic monitoring. Mobile devices may well enable both these.

However, Coulby, Laxton, Boomer and Davies (2011) caution that without a sound pedagogical rationale for the use of mobile devices; technical and infrastructural realities may very possibly reduce student engagement.

Higher educational health and social care curricula often comprise a blend of classroom instruction (in residential education); simulations and work-based placement/s. The latter provide for learning opportunities and the assessment of competencies and professional attributes that cannot be cannot be replicated in the former two. The authentic nature of work-based placement/s enables holistic preparation; preparing graduates for professional practice, including the culture and practices of the particular community of practice. Primary care community clinics are utilised for placements in teaching. (Coulby, et al citing Billet, 2001; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Vygotsky, 1978).

Although work-based placements are regarded essential; Coulby, et al realise that these learning and teaching environments are challenged by practical and sometimes complex issues such as:

• Unreliable or restricted access to PCs and IT infrastructure; resulting in a lack of access to contemporary information; learning materials and social networks.
• Students experiencing uncertainty due to inadequate feedback on their performance resulting in unpreparedness; as well as insufficient monitoring, mentoring and tutoring (pastoral care) due to inadequate resources.

A potential solution explored is the ‘Assessment and Learning in Practical Settings’ (ALPS) programme, which employed mobile technologies. Common competencies, representing ‘readiness’ for professional practice were identified and developed into mobile assessment tools—which enable and encourage students to seek a spectrum of assessment opportunities such as from peers in the health and social care professions; from service users (patients); and self-reflection. The ‘ALPS’ assessments are completed are automatically captured online in e-portfolios; which in turn enable tutor and student review and commentary—in this way future practice of students are shaped and high-level scaffolding feasible. The University of Leeds, for example, has several hundred students in six different discipline/qualification cohorts.

Coulby, C; Laxton, J; Boomer, S & Davies, N. 2011. Mobile technology and assessment: A case study from the ALPS (Assessment and Learning in Practical Settings) programme, pp. 51-70. In N Pachler, C Pimmer & J Seipold (Eds). 2011. Work-based Mobile Learning — concepts and cases. Oxford: Peter Lang.

Restorative Formative Normative Custodian

In an article titled ‘But I thought you were doing that’ Rowe, Mackaway and Winchester-Seeto (2012) attempt to clarify the role of the host mentor/supervisor in the experience-based learning setting. They present the following model:

The model identifies four key roles: Restorative (supporting the student); Formative (fulfilling an educatinal role); Normative (administrative functions); and Custodian (guardian role within the community of practice). 

The article elaborates on the aspects that make up the four roles.

Rowe, T.; Mackaway, J. & Winchester-Seeto, T. 2012. ‘But I thought you were doing that’ – Clarifying the role of the host supervisor in experience-based learning. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 2012(2), 115-134.

Synchronous online laboratory learning

Active laboratory experiment-interaction and problem-solving are considered essential parts of science and engineering education, because they enable direct acquisition of applicable knowledge for use in practical situations. Synchronous experimentation offers immediate feedback, rather than delayed. “Online (Remote) laboratories” report Auer, Edwards and Zutin (2011: 222) “available via internet” are therefore gaining importance. They define Online Engineering “as an interdisciplinary field utilising the areas of engineering, computing and telematics, where specific engineering activities like programming, design, control, observation, measuring, sensing, and maintenance are provided to both remote and local users in a live interactive setting over a distributed, physically dispersed network (for example: internet or intranet)”. They add that “high bandwidth internet connections world-wide and other derivative capabilities in the areas of real-time communication, control, teleconferencing, video streaming and others have made multi-site collaborative work, utilising state-of-the art equipment in remote laboratories across the globe a current reality”.

According to Auer, Edwards and Zutin (2011: 226) there are already a number of remote laboratories in operation and that the range of disciplines being catered for is growing as universities collaborate internationally. The portability and advancement of mobile technology further serve as powerful motivator for growth of online laboratory experiences.

Auer, M.E.; Edwards, A. & Zutin, D.G. 2011. Online laboratories in interactive learning environments, pp. 219-248. In N. Pachler; C. Pimmer & J. Seipold (eds). 2011. Work-Based Mobile Learning— Concepts and Cases. Oxford: Peter Lang.

Work-based mobile learning

“On-the-job training has been the educational ‘delivery’ [method of] choice over many years”, however, work-based mobile learning appears to be gaining interest as “one of the most important means of providing knowledge, skills and competencies” in the workplace observe Auer, Edwards and Zutin (2011: 219). His shift is due to increased wireless networks and mobile technology developments.

Apprenticeships represent a rudimentary form of work-based education. Modelled on the mediaeval guilds, the artisan personally tutored those wishing to learn the craft. They learned through “observation, imitation, practice and feedback” (p. 220). The increased pace of progress; greater volumes and complexity of learning required; and obsolescence of jobs resulted in more frequent career changes and the need to acquire entire new knowledge and skills.

Whereas traditionally work-based training consisted of formal education followed by organisational specific orientation and training; life-long learning became a necessity. Both individuals and organisations are more and more required to adapt—often quickly—to evolving situations in order to retain relevance in the marketplace.

Work-based mobile learning emerged as means to enable people to continue to function optimally. Unfortunately mature workers may oppose these developments due to fear for the unknown. To overcome this potential ‘fossilisation’ learning should be stimulating and enjoyable in order to become a habit of continuous growth and development. Furthermore, certain learning cannot be acquired in the confines of the workplace. This is where mobile learning allow for workers to learn and experience situations not commonly available in the workplace.

Auer, M.E.; Edwards, A. & Zutin, D.G. 2011. Online laboratories in interactive learning environments, pp. 219-248. In N. Pachler; C. Pimmer & J. Seipold (eds). 2011. Work-Based Mobile Learning— Concepts and Cases. Oxford: Peter Lang.

Disorganised and confusing connection of business needs with HE provision

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 26) concludes that “mechanisms to connect business needs with higher education provision are generally disorganised and confusing”. He starts the section of saying that “in higher education, workforce development is often referred to as work-based learning and is increasingly recognised as a field of study” (p. 24). He cites Costley’s (2001) observation that such work-based learning by higher education institutions incorporates “the learning people do, for, in and through work” (emphasis added) and quotes examples of longevity:

• Sandwich courses (academic study interspaced with work experience) and placements (elsewhere called (cooperative and work-integrated education) for longer than a century.
• Structured continuing professional development courses which recognise knowledge gained through work experience.
• Formalised accreditation of prior and experiential learning (APEL) processes.
• Familiarity of learning contracts as instruments in education.

Costley (2001, in Roodhouse 2010: 25) identify synonyms including “work based, work related, placement activities, elective modules, independent study, APEL, reach out, CPD, work based learning”. She further indicates that in most cases work based learning forms part of existing programmes at universities; and that learning outcomes and assessment criteria are embedded in the subject knowledge areas derived from scholarly activities and research.

The lack of sustained engagement of higher education in workforce development is difficult to conceptualise, observes Roodhouse (2010: 25) and highlights his observation with the following University Vocational Awards Council (2002):

We somehow seem to be incapable of learning from experience. Succeeding generations of employers are still marooned in tedious development project steering committees whose proceedings take place in academic jargon. Frustrated academics are still struggling to secure placements and projects with the very companies who are lambasting the quality of their graduates’ work readiness.

Roodhouse (2010: 25) speculates that it could also be “intellectual scepticism amongst the academic community, that employability which is associated with work-based learning is nothing more than a continuous conflict between individuals, market demands and fluctuations”.

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

Flexibility value of work-based learning

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 26) indicates that “there is an increased interest in workplace learning” and “that those in work are increasingly undertaking work-based learning qualifications” for a number of good reasons:

• People can see a direct relevance between their studies and their role in the workplace’
• Those studying can obtain support from employers.
• Work-based programmes enable individuals to structure their studies around their individual interests and professional development.
• Those studying may negotiate the focus of study, context, timescales and their assessment.
• Such programmes allow for flexible fitting into working and personal lives.
• Studying towards an accredited qualification adds to commitment to professional roles held.
• Seeking career progression and increased earning through programmes.

Roodhouse (2010: 26-27) cites Durrant, Rhodes and Young (2009) that indicate the value of work-based learning for employers, namely:

• Employees execute real work projects resulting in direct benefits for the employer.
• Employees are motivated and focus more specifically on the challenges of the organisation.
• Employees engaged in work-based learning programmes are intimately engaged in organisational processes.
• Tangible and visible investment in the development of employees results in increased loyalty.
• Improved employee retention; advancement potential as result of enhanced capabilities and becoming a sought-after employer.
• Enabling employees on their path of self-actualisation and achieving their full potential.
• Employers can partner with a university in developing programmes that support both the professional development of employees as well as organisation improvement.
• The organisational culture can be changed through work-based learning programmes and projects.
• It is a means towards achieving organisational business plans.
• The university has a stake in employee development.

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

Work-based learning landscape densely populated

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 22) observes that the work-based learning landscape became more densely populated — located on various territories are diverse partners, players and cultures. A notion that frequents discourses is flexibility. Both organisations and higher education are required to respond rapidly and flexibly to changes in labour needs. This may imply working collaboratively in order to most effectively achieve goals. Concomitant with the need for flexible organisations is an emphasis on flexible learning with regard to modes of delivery, assessment methodologies, contexts, levels of learning within and across organisations. With result that flexible learning and work-based learning are used almost interchangeably.

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 23) points out that “online and distance learning mechanisms” along with work-based learning avenues are regarded important means of flexible learning. Simon Roodhouse (2010: 23) asserts that an emerging discrete university subject is work-based learning. It is taught, studied and researched as a ‘field of study’ in its own right. In contrast to historically sometimes undertaken part-time while at work; the demonstration of ability to reflect upon skills and knowledge acquired and the approach to work are important — often labelled ‘professional practice’. The development of occupational practice from work-based learning programmes is often separately assessed by employers. According to Roodhouse (2010: 23) “the emphasis in this model is on what has and can be learnt at work by carrying out the job, interacting with colleagues and identifying and reflecting on processes and procedures, the corporate memory relies on being employed.” Roodhouse (2010: 23) concludes by citing Durrant, Rhodes and Young (2009) “in short, work-based learning is for anyone who is regularly engaged in work (or undertakes periods of contractual work sufficiently long enough to complete a programme of study), whatever the nature of that work.”

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

The boundaries of work-based learning

The Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) of the South African Council for Higher Education (CHE), in its 2004 publication Criteria for Institutional Audits, defines (p. 26, emphasis added) work-based learning as “A component of a learning programme that focuses on the application of theory in an authentic, work-based context. It addresses specific competences identified for the acquisition of a qualification which relate to the development of skills that will make the learner employable and will assist in developing his/her personal skills. Employer and professional bodies are involved in the assessment of experiential learning, together with academic staff.” The publication further defines (p. 25) experiential learning as “A term traditionally used within the former technikon sector for work-based learning”.

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 21) presents the dominant theories underpinning work-based learning. He cites Costley (2001) as saying that work-based learning forms part of a cluster of concepts that include lifelong learning, employability and flexibility. Roodhouse (2010: 21) further cites Unwin and Fuller (2003) that differentiate between learning in the workplace and that is work-based. According the Unwin and Fuller (2003) workplace learning embraces all types of learning that “are generated or stimulated by the needs of the workplace” and may include formal or informal on-the-job, work-related off-the-job training as well as education. Roodhouse (2010: 21) additionally cites Boud and Symes (2000) that advocate workplace learning occurs as employees acquire new skills on a day-to-day basis in doing work, developing new approached and solve problems. Roodhouse (2010: 21-22) concurs with the University Vocational Awards Council (2005) observing that “it is evident there can be no single definition” of work-based learning, other than it is “learning (not teaching) and occurs in the workplace (rather on campus)” The University Vocational Awards Council (2005) further differentiates work related learning as “vocational programmes designed to prepare people for employment which often includes employer-determined competencies”. The University Vocational Awards Council (2005) asserts that work based learning in higher education is not specifically about training, but may take many forms and for a number of different purposes — “the emphasis is on identifying and demonstrating learning that has occurred through work based activity” regardless of how and where it may have been accomplished. Roodhouse (2010: 22) indicates that the guide to learning and employability of the Higher Education Academy supports the position emphasised directly above by stating that “it is not necessarily the experience of work itself that is paramount — rather it is the learning that an individual derives from that experience of work and from reflecting upon it.”

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

South Africa. 2004. Council for Higher Education, Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Institutional Audits. Pretoria: Compress. Retrieved from Internet on 8 September 2004, from http://www.che.ac.za/documents/d000061/CHE_Institutional-Audit-Criteria_June2004.pdf

Work based learners increasingly supported online

Online learning environments are increasingly being used to provide learning materials and tutor support, says Tony Toole, Director of the E-college.ac Ltd, Swansea, UK. Work-based learners may submit evidence portfolios online for the assessment of their skills development. Furthermore, employers and training advisors or academics working in partnership and liaise with each other online. Internet has significantly improved the efficiency of work-based learning support and offers significant cost savings for both employers and institutions. This is especially of value to small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) because they can more flexibly engage in work-based learning and can fit learning around work commitments with the added advantage of not involving time and travelling costs.

Web 2.0 technologies is utilised to build online learning environments with functionality similar to established commercial learning management systems, but far less costly. Cloud computing resources further enables reduced costs compared to hosting services online. Various social media, for example, YouTube, Blogs and Wikis further enables the sharing of resources. The Open Educational Resources (OER) movement resulted in fast volumes of educational materials being freely available online. Increasingly educationally relevant online work-based learning materials are being sourced from non-educational sources. The increase in personally owned mobile and wireless technologies further contributes to a win-win situation for all stakeholders in education. Blended and distance learning options are therefore becoming the preferred choice of learning.

Toole, T. 2011. Social media: key tools for the future of work-based learning. Development and Learning in Organizations, 25 (5), 31-34. Accessed online from Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1477-7282.

Drafting experiential education procedures for a university

Those who have been involved in a policy and/or procedure creation process at a university will know it is not an easy task. Substantial literature reviews (which I blogged about during the recent past) that informed a first draft had been undertaken. This draft (Download Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning) has been distributed by e-mail to key role players within the university for critique and comment. The commentary received has been incorporated and a second draft made institutionally available on Intranet and called for commentary through the university's daily e-news mail (Download 2nd Draft of Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning).

At this point a meeting with a senior educational-support line manager resulted in further review and supplementation. A third draft -- Download 3rd Draft of Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning has been produced, which served as discussion document with several key stakeholders. Following thorough consultation and incorporation of input, contributions, commentary, critique and recommended structural changes the process has since arrived at a sixth draft -- Download 6th draft towards a Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning. The sixth draft got formally tabled at a committee within the structure and accepted in principle - subject to a few changes. This new version (Download Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning DRAFT 2-1 - apologies for the hyperlinks to Intranet pages that readers would not have access to) is now the official 2nd draft, for which a powerpoint presentation (Download Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning) had been prepared in order to present it at a next level internal committee.

Ultimately a Procedural Manual for Experiential Learning had been presented to Senate 13 June 2012 and approved, whereafter it was placed on Intranet with the University Council approved Policy for Experiential Learning.

Three modes of experiential education

The Best Practices for Legal Education (2007) publication of the Clinical Legal Education Association (CLEA) represents the fruit of 25 years of rich dialogue among American law teachers, lawyers, and judges, regarding the education of lawyers. In the foreword is stated that the American Bar Association convened a 1984 conference ‘Legal Education and the Profession: Approaching the 21st Century’. The foreword further states that in 1987 Justice Rosalie Wahl of the Minnesota Supreme Court and Chair of the ABA Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar rhetorically asked:

Have we really tried in law school to determine what skills, what attitudes, what character traits, what quality of mind are required of lawyers? Are we adequately educating students through the content and methodology of our present law school curriculums to perform effectively as lawyers after graduation?

The purpose of this elaborate prologue is to convey the credible nature of the three modes of experiential education identified in Chapter 5: Best Practices for Experiential Courses (pp 121 – 152, note that the page numbers of individual online chapters differ from the full publication) of the CLEA Best Practices for Legal Education (2007: 122), namely:

• In-house law clinics offering students opportunities to represent clients or perform other professional roles under the supervision of members of the faculty
• Externships — where students represent clients or perform other professional roles under the supervision of practicing lawyers or they observe or assist practicing lawyers or judges in their work
• Simulation-based courses granting students hypothetical situations to assume professional roles and perform law-related tasks

These three modes, although many different terms are used, are common in many disciplines, for example:

• Practicals, laboratory work, applied field experiences facilitated and managed by lecturers
• Work-integrated/experiential/work-based learning in the occupational field under supervision of an experienced practitioner
• Simulated learning providing experience in hypothetical situations

Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998: 244) address externships as a means for law students to obtain a credit “working in legal settings”. It is interesting to note that “in the United States, students may not receive financial compensation for work which warrants educational credit”. Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998) identify both advantages and disadvantages with regard to externships. Potential advantages include “lower costs, variety of opportunities, work experience, service to the community, and flexibility”. As far as disadvantages are concerned, the main one identified is the potential “lack of control over the quality of the educational experience”.

Brayne, H; Duncan, N & Grimes, R. 1998. Clinical legal education: active learning in your law school. London: Blackstone.

Stuckey, R & Others. 2007. Best Practices for Legal Education. United States: Clinical Legal Education Association. Retrieved 2 November 2011 from: http://www.cleaweb.org/best-practices -- note the hyperlink to the best practices blog at the bottom of the web page.

SA Council on Higher Education mixed messages about WIL?

Since 2005 the HEQC published 12 resources as part of its quality of teaching and learning prioritisation. The 12^th HE Monitor, namely Work-integrated learning: good practice guide (August 2011), is intended to assist with regard to programme and curriculum development in the light of adaptation of the HEQF (October 2007). The guide also serves to prompt with regard to the purpose and role of work-integrated learning as means to ensure that graduate are better prepared for the world in which they will work and live. The guide contains 33 international and local case studies to illustrate the theoretical basis.

The term work-integrated learning (WIL) is qualified in the introduction and background chapter as umbrella term for “curricular, pedagogic and assessment practices, across a range of academic disciplines that integrate formal learning and workplace concerns” (CHE, 2011: 4). It is further pointed out that there are many different practices along a continuum; that WIL has always been a distinguishing feature of professional education albeit identified by other terms; and that WIL in a variety of forms is an important part of technical, vocational and professional higher education.

Chapter 2 starts off by differentiating between three interrelated fields, namely the academic field, the educational filed and the professional practice. The building of knowledge, transfer thereof and crossing of knowledge boundaries is briefly explained, as well as the recontextualising of both academic and workplace knowledges.

The third chapter focuses on curriculum design and development for WIL. In addition to recontextualising of both knowledge domains the alignment of workplace and academic interests is touched on. The importance of alignment of outcomes, WIL activities and assessment; as well as design strategies that focus on integration of theory and practice are pointed out. Four curricular modalities are introduced as a WIL typology, namely:

• Work-directed theoretical learning (WDTL)
• Problem-based learning (PBL)
• Project-based learning (PJBL)
• Workplace learning (WPL)

The implications of WIL at the six HEQF levels are addressed in the light of the four modalities above. The discussion is in stark contrast to the gazetted HEQF which emphasises typically inclusion of simulated work experience (SWE) or WIL as part of the Higher and Advanced Certificates and the Diploma. Instead the CHE guide advocates WDTL for the higher or one-year certificate, because of the short duration (p. 23). Similarly for the two-year advanced certificate, because of the short duration, PBL (pp. 23-4). For the diploma, bachelor degree, advanced diploma and postgraduate diploma short placements (WPL) are recommended; and for the professional bachelor, master’s and doctorate PJBL (pp. 24-6).

WDTL generally does not require any special accreditation requirements as it is associated with subsidy systems. However, PBL, PJBL and WPL require special consideration because these modalities require additional funding for the resources that are necessary. The difficulty of linking WPL to credit points and notional hours of learning (p. 28), because of learning in the workplace differing substantially, is emphasised. The third chapter is concluded with discussion of recognition of prior learning (RPL) in a WIL curriculum.

Chapter 4 start off with a central concern about teaching for transfer and in particular the application of academic knowledge. The academic and workplace collaboration with regard to the four modalities are addressed.

Chapter 5 addresses assessment of and for WIL. The principles of appropriateness, farness, transparency, formative and summative, validity, authenticity and consistency are presented. The importance of both formative (assessment for learning) and summative are highlighted; followed by development of assessment tasks; assessment criteria; and the assessment of the four modalities.

In chapter 6 the importance of partnerships for WIL are introduced and then partnership for the four modalities elaborated on. Managing partnerships with regard to initiating, implementing, maintaining, reflection on and evaluation of are addressed.

The final chapter (7) is devoted to the management of WIL. Managing at institutional level as well as departmental level with regard to the four modalities are discussed. The chapter is concluded with managing the financial, staff and physical resources.

After the guide’s references a glossary of terms (pp. 71-78) and the acronyms used follow. Each of the 38 terms are described in various depth and for most additional information hyperlinked.

The criteria pertaining to WIL or rather work-based learning (WBL) espoused in the HEQC’s criteria for institutional audits (2004a) and programme accreditation (2004b) are not specifically referred to, namely:

• Effective management and coordination, with responsibilities and lines of accountability clearly allocated.
• Adequate infrastructure provided.
• Learning contracts or agreements, clarifying the objectives and outcomes of the learning process, as well as the roles and responsibilities of the institution, students, mentors and employers involved.
• Regular and effective communication between the various parties involved.
• Regular and systematic recording and monitoring of progress of the student’s learning experience.
• Mentoring that enables the student to recognise strengths and weaknesses; to develop existing and new abilities; and to gain knowledge of work practices.
• Academic as well as workplace based assessment.

Council on Higher Education (CHE), Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC). 2004a. Criteria for Institutional Audits. Pretoria: Compress. Electronically available from: http://www.che.ac.za/documents/d000061/CHE_Institutional-Audit-Criteria_June2004.pdf

Council on Higher Education (CHE), Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC). 2004b. Criteria for Programme Accreditation. Pretoria. Electronically available from: http://www.che.ac.za/documents/d000084/CHE_accreditation_criteria_Nov2004.pdf

Council on Higher Education (CHE). 2011. Work-integrated learning: good practice guide. HE Monitor No 12. Pretoria. Electronically accessed 5 September 2011 from: http://www.che.ac.za/documents/d000217/Higher_Education_Monitor_12.pdf

South Africa. 2007. Higher Education Qualifications Framework. Department of Education Government Notice No 928, gazetted (No. 30353) 5 October 2007. http://www.che.ac.za/documents/d000148/Higher_Education_Qualifications_Framework_Oct2007.pdf

Cooperative & Work-integrated Education

CWIE, just another fashionable terminology or a new conceptual direction? The World Associaion for Cooperative Education (WACE) adopted the byline advancing cooperative and work-integrated education. Yet, no explanation is provided. A definition of Work-integrated Education (WIE) appear on at least three webpages of The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (PolyU), namely the Faculty of Business, the Institute of Textiles and Clothing, and Hong Kong Community College: “work-based learning experiences which take place in an organisational context relevant to a student’s future profession, or the development of generic skills that will be valuable in that profession”.

Apparently the current choice of education (WIE) in the WACE byline, which is a deviation from the former notion learning (WIL), is because education is considered a the more complete, fuller term (learning and teaching combined). WACE is apparently also shifting away from using the original term cooperative education.

PolyU is said to be well recognized for providing professional education to meet the needs of society, because of its emphasis on practical training and connecting theoretical learning with workplace applications. PolyU students who have satisfactorily completed the compulsory work-integrated education (WIE) requirements of qualifications are provided with a Transcript (WIET) upon graduation—an official transcript displaying the details of completed WIE activities (including name of company/organization, location, duration and position etc.). The WIE Transcript, being endorsed by PolyU, can add value in the job-searching process of graduates.

Semester in-industry learning industry affiliates model

The semester-in-industry model is, according to Edwards (2007) a characteristic of the Australian undergraduate engineering work-integrated learning industry affiliates program. Engineers Australia, the Australian engineering accrediting body, advocates that a key differentiating element of a professional engineering degree from an applied science degree is exposure through work-practice. The industry affiliates program entail students work on a joint industry-university supervised project during the first semester of the final year. Edwards (2007) summarizes the roles and responsibilities of the three partners to the industry affiliates program as follow:

• The industry partner provides the resources for the project; technical supervision for the student; and a suitable workplace for the student similar to that provided for commencing engineers. Industry partners are not expected to pay students.
• The aim is to integrate the student into the professional culture of organization. The student manages the project and adheres to the dress and attendance standards of the industry partner.
• The university selects suitable projects (in consultation with industry partners); help match students to projects; and provides academic supervision of students by visiting student in industry placement to ensure the meeting of requirements.

 The schedule of a typical industry affiliates program model is as follow (Edwards 2007):

October (of year before)	Briefing of students and preparation of CVs
November	List of project topics released and student apply
December to January	Students interviewed and selected for projects
February	Pre-industry workshops; agreements signed between industry partner and student; and student prepares project milestones
February to June	Industry experience by executing an assigned project and regular monitoring of project plan by industry and university
June	Exhibition of projects and submission of thesis

Work-integrated Learning (WiL) is a term used by many Australian universities and internationally to refer to activities that integrate the work (or industry) experience with formal studies. Edwards (2007) points out that it can take multiple forms, such as periods of work experience, internships, site visits, industry based projects, case studies using industry experience, having industry experts provide guest lectures, etc.

Edwards, D. 2007. Integrating Work Integrated Learning. Presented at the International Conference on Engineering Education – ICEE 2007, September 3 – 7, Coimbra, Portugal. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://www.ineer.org/Events/ICEE2007/papers/226.pdf   

Learning in Social Media

Learning moves in the bytes and through threads of social media. Patti Anklam's taxonomy contains five types of social media (SM), which Harold Jarche equates to various forms of learning. Patti Anklam has been pondering about the way the term social media is used, not necessary meaning the same in different contexts. She observes that the use of social tools has forever shifted relationships to conversation as the centre of attention, which Harold Jarche argues is the essence of learning. He accentuates that it is necessary to stop thinking of learning as a separate issue or entity and gives the example that "when you learn with and from your customers" learning-marketing becomes one. He goes as far as to say eliminating the "L word is a start".

Media SM — Blogging software, for example, makes social computing fairly simple, coined mass amateurisation. With this post, for example, I share my learning with readers of learning in vivo.

Customer SM — is about building online communities — customer communities — sets of Internet tools and applications that are driven by the needs of organisations to control their brand; to be responsive to the needs of customers; pay attention to the marketplace; and the development of new products based on the ideas and feedback from customers.

Enterprise SM — is about the shift focus in the use of Web-based technologies from content to conversation; from publishing to interacting—technologies and practices are embedded in a web of relationships. The top five drivers of Enterprise 2.0 are the connectivity across teams and geographies; access to subject experts; increasing productivity; knowledge repository; and fostering innovation.

Personal SM — is the collection of technologies and practices in order to support the development of personal intellectual and social capital. I have, for example started this blog to capture my personal body of knowledge and share it with other, for what it is worth.

Crowd SM — encompasses "the ways that social media are used to promote causes, but also to respond to crises and natural disasters, to call up collective wisdom, or to stream events."

I recommend readers of this post to visit the hyperlinks and personally read the posts of Patti Anklam and Harold Jarche who much more eloquently elaborate on the taxonomy, learning and knowledge management.

Learning in Work and the Community (LiWC)

Learning in the Workplace and Community (LiWC) is, according to Victoria University, "an umbrella term that encompasses the many models and integrated approaches to teaching, learning and assessment that involve learning in and through the workplace and community. These LiWC models and approaches may include but are not limited to, projects in a workplace, practical, co-operative and clinical placements, fieldwork, simulated learning environments, apprenticeships, traineeships or internships and enterprise initiatives."

Tweets enrich learning from work

Tweet-sharing presents a potentially powerful means of spreading learning derived from work experiences for students during prerequisite in vivo learning; for members of a community of practice; for participants in a learning through work programme; etc. Download Academic tweeting to learn MG29Jan-4Feb2010 What do readers of this post think of the idea? Could tweets and re-tweets become the material for reflective practice?

Reflective practice for collective learning

Raelin (2000: 101) calls "the process of public reflection" reflective practice; it is a community of inquiry and creates a collective identity. He defines reflection as "the practice of periodically stepping back to ponder the meaning to self and others in one's immediate environment about what has transpired. It illuminates what has been experienced by both self and others, providing a basic for future education", he adds.

Raelin (2000: 101-2) emphasises learning dialogues, as element of reflective practice, taking place in the security of trustworthy peers based on the direct experiences of work. Raelin (p. 103) refers to Plato's statement that 'the unexamined life isn't worth living' meaning that others need to be included in the examination of life experiences. It is more than collective naval gazing; it isintorspection midst of practice and in the presence of others.

"Reflective practitioners 'reinvest' in learning by participating in continuing education" and "engage in problem posing as much as problem solving, continually expand[ing] their solution database rather than select the first solution that works, view inconsistencies as opportunities rather than inconveniences, and enjoy reflecting back on their decision making rather than sealing off debate" (Raelin 2000: 105). Four explicit reflective practices that can be used each on its own or combined are presented by Raelin (2000: 115-145):

1. Learning teams

Work-based learning often involves action learning in teams. Co-workers undertake projects together, discuss dilemmas of work actions, as well as "the application or misapplication of concepts and theories to these actions" (p. 115). The learning device is to pose questions to one another.

2. Journaling

But "the journal is arguably the most endemic technique we have to enhance our self-reflection" admits Raelin (p. 124). Yet, he continues, although it is "often used as an introspective tool for personal growth, it can also serve as an aid to bring together the inner and outer parts of our lives. It offers a lens to view experience—be it before, during, or after the event under scrutiny—and it even allows further reflection on the journal entries themselves." The journal is a potent vehicle to collect private data for public learning dialogues and may include any one or more of the following:

• Logs or reports of specific factual experiences.
• Lists of observations or ideas.
• Portraits or descriptions of people or situations.
• Memoirs of personal experiences.
• Catalogues of feelings/perceptions in situations or about people.
• Intimate accounts including personal sentiments, confessions and notes.
• Dialogues recordings.
• Conceptual understandings.
• Commentary of applications of concepts.
• Social histories (stories) of issues unfolding.
• Maps of consciousness to capture the state of mind.
• Guided imagery, meditated frames of reference and/or dreams.
• Altered points of view in different contexts or timeframes.
• Contradictions or dilemmas experiences or observed.
• Inconsistencies noticed
• Surprises experiences.

3. Developmental planning

Developmental planning often linked to career development. It involves the individual interests, needs and expectations, as well as the organisational objectives and resource requirements. It is often an element of the overall organisational performance management strategy.

4. Developmental relationships

Examples of developmental relationships include coaching and mentoring.

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Learning by steps of inference

When I showed my wife Raelin's (2000: 98) ladder of inference, she replied that this is much more her way of learning than memorising or having things hammered into her brain—memorising does not work for me! There are many people that much rather learn by engaging and figuring things out, consulting resources as and when necessary.

When I did a search for a picture of a ladder I found numerous ladders of interference, for example:

• Ladder of inference model from Peter Senge's (1994) 5th Discipline Fieldbook.
• Also called by some the ladder of influence or even ladder of innocence.
• Some give the ladder of inference six steps above the surface it is standing on.
• The ladder of inference is regarded as one of the most effective tools in understanding and explaining why we so often get into conflict and fail to get resolution—it was originally articulated by Chris Argyris (acknowledged by Raelin as work-based learning tutor, for his intellectual stimulation) and popularized in Peter Senge.
• William Goelkel emphasise, in the PM Notebook, that we make decisions and take action based on what we consider to be obvious truths based on objective data, however, the problem is the data is often selected to conform to our beliefs—not truths and often not obvious to others—a feedback loop is therefore important.

This four-step ladder is available in 12 colours, with a no handrail, a left, a right or both-sides handrails.

Raelin's (2000: 98) ladder of inference comprise:

Step 4: Take action.

Step 3: Draw inferences.

Step 2: Interpret data.

Step 1: Select data.

Surface: Observe available data.

I further found this very interesting (to me) four step rock climbing device and numerous other gadgets.

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.