Learning in vivo

The ‘UFOs’ of discretionary grants for work-integrated learning

OFO is not an obscure/unidentified flying object. OFO Code appears repeatedly in the templates for mandatory and discretionary grant funding for skills development, contained in Annexure 2 (public) and 3 (private) of the SETA Grant Regulations. In order to access funding for enabling work-integrated learning (WIL) a legal person must complete and submit a PIVOTAL training plan and report as, per sections E & F (pp. 22-23) or sections G & H (pp. 30-31) respectively, and as per published timeframes to the relevant SETA/s.

OFO stand for Organising Framework for Occupations <Download OFO Version 2013>. It is stated in the OFO Guidelines (DHET 2013: 4) that it is in essence a coded occupational classification system and a key tool of the Department of Higher Education and Training for identifying, reporting and monitoring skills demand and supply in the South African labour market. It is therefore important for academics at higher education institutions to be capable to make use of the OFO.

The 2013 OFO has been in the making since 2004. The classification units are jobs (occupations on the OFO). The classification variable is the nature of work done (tasks and duties). The identification classifications criteria include two dimensions of skill, i.e. skill level and skill specialisation. The following definitions (DHET 2013: 6-7) apply:

• A job is a set of tasks and duties carried out or meant to be carried out, by one person for a particular employer, including self-employment.
• An occupation is a set of jobs whose main tasks and duties are characterised by a high degree of similarity (skill specialisation).
• Skill is defined as the ability to carry out the tasks and duties of a given job.
• Skill level is defined as a function of the complexity and range of tasks and duties to be performed in an occupation. Skill level [four] is measured operationally by considering the nature (e.g. complexity and range) of the work performed and/or level of formal education and/or amount of informal on-the-job training (including experience needed).
• Skill specialisation is considered in terms of four conceptual concepts, namely the field of knowledge required; the tools and machinery used; the materials worked on or with; and the kinds of goods and services produced.

The OFO structure involves grouping of occupations into eight (8) Major groups—single (1) digit, Sub-Major—two (2) digits, Minor—three (3) digits, Unit—four (4) digits, and occupations—six (6) digits. Higher education is concerned with the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) levels 5 to 10, which equate to the upper-part of the OFO skill-level 2 through to 4. The top three major groups of the OFO therefore relate to the skills development contribution of higher education, namely (1) Managers, (2) Professionals, and (3) Technicians and Associate Professionals. Some undergraduate qualifications may further relate to higher education’s skills development contribution towards the next four major groups of the OFO, namely (4) Clerical Support Workers; (5) Service and Sales Workers; (6) Skilled Agricultural, Forestry, Fishery, Craft and Related Trades Workers; and (7) Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers. In order to enable the access of discretionary grants for the work-integrated learning PIVOTAL programmes, a working knowledge of the OFO—in particular identification of the relevant OFO Codes—is therefore important.

The Classification of Education Subject Matter (CESM) of the DHET is structurally similar to the OFO. The CESM (DHET 2008: 1) is not concerned with academic programmes; instead CESM confines itself to the various knowledge components (courses or often called modules) which appear within such academic programmes. CESM comprises 20 Educational Fields—denoted by two (2) digits “first order designations[, which] are intended to be representative of major categories for classifying knowledge.” Each field is subdivided into a number of sub-fields (a total of 239 denoted by four digits) and each subdivided into subjects (denoted by six digits). “Second order and third order categories are considered to be natural subdivisions of the major subject matter areas. The hierarchy level of a specific area of study should not be seen as a judgement of the relative importance of that area of study in the South African higher education system.” (DHET 2008: 4) The reason for CEMS is that universities tend to use both unique titles for their offerings and have unique academic management structures. In order to ensure uniformity of annual data returns the Higher Education Management Information System (HEMIS). For the Unit—four (4) digits of the OFO, the most appropriate CESM codes were linked—at two (2) digits (where the overlap is too big) or four (4) digits—refer to DHET (2013: 17). This is of particular importance for career guidance purposes.

New green occupations (reflected as “scarce skills”) were added to the 2013 OFO version to support the “initiatives of reducing negative environmental impact and contribute sustainably to environmental, economical and social sensitive enterprises and economies” DHET (2013: 14). Provision had further been made for new skill sets (reflected as “critical skills”) in existing occupations in order to support initiatives. A total of 96 occupations are considered green and identified with a green-earth symbol on the OFO. A further “51 occupations and 17 specialisations were identified as requiring “Critical Green Skills” and can be recognised” by a two-green-circular-arrows symbol on the OFO (DHET 2013: 15).

Republic of South Africa. 2008. Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). Classification of Education Subject Matter (CESM) August 2008. <Download CESM classification of educational subject matter> Electronically accessible from: http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=5PLnoxrqLLU%3D&tabid=95&mid=507

Republic of South Africa. 2013. Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). Guidelines: Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) 2013. <Download OFO Guideline - 2013> Electronically accessible from: http://www.dhet.gov.za/Documents/Publications/tabid/93/Default.aspx

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Skills Development Act (97/1998). The Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) grant regulations regarding monies received by a SETA and related matters. Government Gazette Vol. 570; Regulation Gazette No 9867; Government Notice No R990; Gazette No 35940; 3 December 2012. The Government Printing Works. Electronically accessed from http://www.info.gov.za/view/DynamicAction?pageid=623&myID=361326

Regulations about Skills Development Funds received and spending

On 1 April 2013 new regulations (RSA 2012) about monies received by Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs); mandatory and discretionary grants; proportion of administration costs; discouraging accumulation of surpluses; and related came into effect. Simultaneously the previous grant regulations were repealed, namely Government Notice No R713 in Government Gazette No 27801 of 18 July 2005 and Government Notice No R88 in Government Gazette No 29584 of 2 February 2007.

Of particular importance to higher education programmes that contains work-integrated learning in the curriculum is §6 (pp. 11-13), “allocation of discretionary grants by a SETA”:

• §6(12)—“at least 80% of discretionary grant funding must be allocated to PIVOTAL programmes”, which are defined (p. 5) as an acronym meaning “professional, vocational, technical and academic learning programmes that result in qualifications or part qualifications on the National Qualifications Framework …” [also §3(6)]
• §6(11)—addressing scarce and critical skills through programmes designed to address such, which include work-integrated learning must be the key focus of SETAs. Work-integrated learning is defined (p. 6) as an umbrella term for curricular, pedagogic and assessment practices; integrating formal learning and workplace concerns; culminating in a qualification or part thereof; and may include practicums, professional practice, internships, workplace experience, industry-based learning, cooperative education, service learning, real work learning, placements, experiential learning, and clinical placements
• §6(14)—obtaining the funding above is subject to a legal person completing and submitting a PIVOTAL training plan and report as per annexure 2 (private), sections E & F (pp. 22-23) or (public), sections G & H (pp. 30-31). A legal person [§6(10), p. 12] includes public education and training institutions; an employer or enterprise that falls within the jurisdiction of a SETA, but includes those not required to pay the skills levy; and other such as NGOs [refer to §6(7), p. 12].
• §6(15)—however, employers with less than 50 employees will not have to submit the PIVOTAL training plan and report indicated above, “but will be asked to provide information on participation in PIVOTAL programmes and the impact of these”. SETAs will develop suitable templates for small and micro enterprises.
• Note, however, §7 specifies that the “SETA criteria for grants must be approved by the SETA Accounting Authority before funds are allocated”; and §8 that each SETA is required to prepare and distribute a schedule indicating the dates by which applications for grants must be submitted and the timeframes for disbursements [also §3(7)].
• §6(1-2 & 4-5)—each SETA must develop a Sector Skills Plan (SSP) in accordance to the National Skills Development Strategy and strategic goals; and each SETA must annually approve a Discretionary Grants Policy, developed in accordance to the issued DHET guidelines; which will determine and specify its discretionary grants allocation to meet the sector’s needs through different delivery models and project types that will be deployed.
• §6(3)—each SETA’s Annual Performance Plan (APP) clarifies how discretionary grants are allocated to prioritise skills development of the sector through public education and training institutions.
• §6(9)—the Discretionary Grants Policy of each SETA must “indicate the purpose of the various grants, funding frameworks and projects …”; and give the communication procedures, which must embrace the “principles of transparency, opened, access and fairness” [§6(8)].

The remainder of the regulations deal with (§1) definitions; (§2) specifying the limitations on administrative costs of SETAs; (§3) the compliance of SETA finances and financial management; (§4) the allocation of mandatory grants, and (§5) the payment mandatory grants to levy paying employers; (§9) the payment of services rendered by SETAs; (§10) the repeal of previously published regulations; and (§11) finally the short tile and commencement of the regulations.

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Skills Development Act (97/1998). The Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) grant regulations regarding monies received by a SETA and related matters. Government Gazette Vol. 570; Regulation Gazette No 9867; Government Notice No R990; Gazette No 35940; 3 December 2012. The Government Printing Works.

Clinical Learning Opportunites

Rather interesting, the South African Government Gazettes Nos 36234 and 36235 differ with regard to the definition of clinical learning opportunities. Both state it "means the range of learning experiences  ... available in a healthcare setting  ... other experiential learning sites ... a learner ... to gain the required clinical skills"; however:

• No 36234, referenced in the post about regulations pertaining to accreditation of nursing education institutions specify the range of learning experiences to include "work-integrated learning and service learning, available in a healthcare setting, which may also include other experiential learning sites where a learner has the opportunity ..."
• whereas No 36235, referenced in the post titled gazetted terminology for professional nurse and midwife education and training restrict the definition to "means the range of learning experiences  available in a healthcare setting or other experiential learning sites for a learner to gain the required clinical skills"

 Do these differences signify anything important or are they merely admistrative oversights?

Gazetted Terminology for Professional Nurse and Midwife Education and Training

The terminology for cooperative and work-integrated education within the South African nursing education and training sphere is worth noting. It is gazetted that the Minister of Health, after consultation of the South African Nursing Council (SANC)—a statutory body—in accordance to §58(1)(f) of the Nursing Act (Act No 33 of 1995); made regulations pertaining to the education and training of professional nurses and midwives.

Of specific interest are the definitions of:

• Clinical accompaniment, which “means a structured process by a nurse education institution to facilitate assistance and support to the learner by the nurse educator at the clinical facility to ensure the achievement of the programme outcomes;”
• Clinical facility, which “means a continuum of services to promote health and provide care to individuals and groups, used to teach learners;”
• Clinical learning opportunities, which “means the range of learning experiences available in a healthcare setting or other experiential learning sites for a learner to gain the required clinical skills;”
• Clinical placement, which “means the period spent by a learner in clinical and other experiential learning sites to ensure that the purpose of the programme is achieved;”
• Clinical supervision, which “means the assistance and support extended to the learner by the professional nurse or midwife at a clinical facility with an aim of developing a competent, independent practitioner;”

The gazetted regulations further includes several other definitions of terminology such as assessment / assessment method / integrated assessment / assessor / moderation / moderator; competence / learning outcomes / programme outcomes; comprehensive nursing; fundamental learning; programme / qualification; and recognition of prior learning. The regulations further deal with issues such as requirements for registration in the two said nursing categories; accreditation of education institutions; admission criteria; minimum programme requirements; clinical education and training; the assessment and moderation of learning outcomes; transfers; recognition of prior learning; application of these regulations, as well as transitional arrangements.

Nursing Act: Regulations: Approval of and minimum requirements for education and training of learners leading to registration in categories professional nurse and midwife, (G 36235, RG 9927, GoN 174), 8 March 2013

DHET Learning Programme Regulations, 2012

The South African government notice, referenced below, conveys the Minister of Higher Education and Training intention to repeal the Learnership Regulations (published in Government Notice R 519 in Government Gazette No 30010 dated 29 June 2007) and makes available Learning Programme Regulations—under the Skills Development Act, 1998 (Act No. 97 of 1998)—for public comment a 30 day period that ended 5 August 2012.

The notice defines a "learning programme agreement" to mean an agreement as intended in the regulations. The notice further specifies and defines, among others, the following:

• Candidacy—meaning “the practical and work experience training that is an occupational qualification as determined by the relevant professional body and follows the completion of an academic qualification required for access to the assessment for the issuing of a professional designation. This learning must lead to the issuing of a designation registered on the NQF” (emphasis added).
• Internship—meaning “the structured work experience component of an occupational qualification registered by the” Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) as contemplated in Section 26G of the Skills Development Act.
• Learner—meaning “the learning party to a learning programme agreement, who is enrolled in a registered learning programme that has a curriculum registered with QCTO and includes [the] Iearner contemplated in both section 18( 1) and section 18(2 )of the Act” (emphasis added).
• Learnership—meaning “a learning programme that leads to an occupational qualification or part qualification and includes an apprenticeship and cadetship”
• Placement—meaning “a learner is placed in a workplace to complete part of an internship”
• Structured learning component—includes both “the knowledge and practical curriculum components of an occupational qualification” and the structured work experience component "means the workplace curriculum components of an occupational qualification” (emphasis added).
• Successful completion—meaning that “the Iearner has successfully completed the learning programme and has been declared competent”.
• Termination—means “the cancellation or dissolution of a learning programme agreement before one or more of the components of the learning programme agreement have been successfully completed”.
• Work integrated learning—“means a process that formally integrates a student's academic qualification or part qualification with work experience in participating employer organisations” (emphasis added).

The definitions quoted above are in need of some editing, because the way they are currently stated excludes—probably unintentionally—certain types, for example, the definition of a learner by implication excludes higher education qualifications.[The Directorate: SETA Support and Learnerships of the South African national Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) advised that the regulations are not finalized yet, the staff are still busy with the consolidation of public comments. As soon as the revised regulations are approved by the Minister, theywill then be publish in a gazette and also on the DHET website.]

Chapter 2 deals with the registration and management of learning programme agreements; chapter 3 with disputes; and chapter 4 with administrative provisions. Annexure A1 (pp. 12-20) reflects the full Learning Programme Agreement (excluding Skills Programmes) and annexure A2 the agreement for skills programmes.

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Department of Higher Education and Training. Government Gazette, Skills Development Act: Regulations: Learning Programme: Draft, (G 35489, General Notice 545), 5 July. Electronically available from http://www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=169917 and/or http://www.dhet.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=RY4DaZ62eQU%3d&tabid=346&mid=1415

Restorative Formative Normative Custodian

In an article titled ‘But I thought you were doing that’ Rowe, Mackaway and Winchester-Seeto (2012) attempt to clarify the role of the host mentor/supervisor in the experience-based learning setting. They present the following model:

The model identifies four key roles: Restorative (supporting the student); Formative (fulfilling an educatinal role); Normative (administrative functions); and Custodian (guardian role within the community of practice). 

The article elaborates on the aspects that make up the four roles.

Rowe, T.; Mackaway, J. & Winchester-Seeto, T. 2012. ‘But I thought you were doing that’ – Clarifying the role of the host supervisor in experience-based learning. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 2012(2), 115-134.

Work-integrated learning as method of structured distance learning

The South African Ministry of Higher Education and Training (MHET) published the draft Policy Framework for the Provision of Distance Higher Education in the Government Gazette on 29 May 2012.

Based on the MHET Policy’s glossary (p. 4) definition of distance education work-integrated learning (WIL) can be regarded as a method of structured distance learning:

... a set of teaching and learning strategies (or educational methods) that can be used to overcome spatial and/or temporal separation between educators and students. However, it is not a single mode of delivery. It is a collection of methods for the provision of structured learning. It avoids the need for students to discover the curriculum by attending classes frequently and for long periods. Rather, it aims to create a quality learning environment using an appropriate combination of different media, tutorial support, peer group discussion, and practical sessions (emphasis added).

This is emphasised on page 8 of the draft MHET Policy that states: "Distance education proceeds from the belief that learning can be nurtured without necessarily requiring teachers and learners to be in the same place at the same time, and that the resource based nature of distance education allows for the possibility to achieve economies of scale" (emphasis added).

Page 8 of the draft MHET Policy also points out that distance education 'requires substantial up-front investment in curriculum design and materials development, including attention to issues of structure, pacing and meaningful formative assessment, as well as considerable investment in decentralised student support' (emphasis added), which is also true about WIL. Page 12 of the draft MHET Policy continues to state: 'Online communication allows students and academics to remain separated by space and time (although some forms of communication assume people congregating at a common time), but to sustain an ongoing dialogue. Online asynchronous discussion forums, for example, reflect an instance where the spatial separation between educator and learners is removed by the ‘virtual’ space of the Internet, but where there remains temporal separation' (emphasis added). The facilitation of reflection among students during and after stints of WIL has been emphasised.

Item 4.2.2 (h), pp. 22-23 of the draft MHET Policy giving the example of teacher education should enjoy appropriate attention:

Teacher education is a good example here: it remains in the lowest CESM funding category even though new accreditation requirements require investment in a robust teaching practice placement, mentoring and supervision system. While teaching practice has been funded as a full course at funding level 1, the issue now is to define it as an experiential learning component through the funding review process and thus fund it accordingly. Similar concerns arise regarding any programmes of study that require substantive work-integrated-learning and/or practical components and/or substantial online engagement between teachers and students in synchronous and asynchronous fora. Such requirements militate against the potential of achieving economies of scale.

It needs to be pointed out that the statement above does not mention the role of the teaching community of practice, which is a very important oversight. The collaborative notion in Cooperative and Work-integrated Education is not mentioned in the draft policy. The establishment of a supportive community of practice is crucial with regard to curriculum design, especially if work-integrated learning is decided upon as most appropriate method.

Practitioners, serving as mentors for learners, are the third key players in programmes that include work-integrated learning as preferred method. The up-front investment in for quality work-integrated learning includes appropriate materials development that would structure and pace learning as well as empower workplace mentors to offer meaningful formative assessment. This is where the investment of decentralised student support of quality work-integrated learning should focus. (Page 8 of the draft MHET Policy)

Although improvement of the quality of distance education is mentioned in section 4.3 (p. 23); concern about quality and of “inadequate practical work or exposure to work integrated learning” is highlighted.

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Department of Higher Education and Training. Draft Policy Framework for the Provision of Distance Higher Education in South African Universities. Retrieved online from: http://www.dhet.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=ZgZKPb1fM38%3D&tabid=36

Effective user interface for simulated learning

For at least three decades the design principles of user interface has a presence in computer science literature. During the last decade computer systems became increasingly more interactive and code for interface increased accordingly. Interactive user interface developments and graphic user interfaces (GUI) in particular do provide simpler ways for humans to communicate with PCs. Although GUI requires complex programming, several software tools emerged that assist with the implementation of GUI, such as NeXT Interface Builder; WindowsMAKER; TelePICTIVE; and TelePICTIRE (Sidhu, 2010: 36).

Sidhu (2010: 36-38) suggests the following design guidelines for better user interface:

• Simple, clear and standardised screen layout with liberal use of blank space. Functional aspects such as title, help text and buttons should be consistent throughout; with distinctive design that emphasise critical information. Textual information should be easily legible, by using appropriate fonts, typestyles and typesets. The resolution of graphics should eb good quality.
• Make use of easily navigatable multi-windows and menus to enable users to bring relevant windows to the front.
• Make use of menus that indicate the selected option and visited items. Provide keyboard shortcuts (accelerators) and indicators of drastic action if executed, e.g. exiting or quiting without having saved. Use hierarchical (sub) menus with clear indicators.
• Provide selection lists (pop-ups) when hovering with mouse.
• Make use of realistics icons to give visual clues to users.
• Make use of feedback indicators, e.g. progress or time/percentage remaining; and/or graphic indicators, such as bars.
• Provide online help that is context sensitive.
• Error messages should be constructive and offer remedy suggestions.
• Use colour to enhance usefulness, e.g. similar functional background colours; contrast to focus users; and bright colours for caution.
• Mouse input (and other input devices) should be consistent with contemporary software.

Sidhu, M.S. 2010. Technology-assisted problem solving for engineering education: interactive multimedia applications. Hershey: Engineering Science Reference.

Instructional design for simulation

Literally, instructional design means “a set of events that facilitate learning” (instructional) and “a creative model” (design)—it includes a number of systematic processes to plan and create situations and/or events that would enhance the learning of individuals. Underlying instructional design are learning theory paradigms, based on various schools of thought, for example behaviourist—representing those believing that learning results in changed behaviour; cognitive—the proponents who believe adding of new concepts and ideas result in learning; and constructivist—those that believe that “learners construct knowledge for themselves” (Sidhu, 2010: 12-14).

There are hundreds of instructional design models. However, Reigeluth (1999, cited by Sidhu, 2010: 14) indicates that four major characteristics are common to instructional design, namely:

• “Design orientation,
• Identification of methods of instruction and situations,
• Methods of instruction that can be broken into more detail components methods, and
• Choice of Probalistic Methods”

Design theory is important because it renders “a vision of instruction early in the design process”—an ends of “how learners would be different as result of” the learning. The ultimate user plays a significant role, advocates Banathy (1991, cited by Sidhu, 2010: 14) who calls for a “much greater use of the notion of user-design”. Theory further provides guidance to instructional design at three levels according to Reigeluth (1999, cited by Sidhu, 2010: 14 and emphasis added):

• “Methods that best facilitate learning under different situations,
• Learning tool features that best allow an array of alternative methods to be made available to learners, [and]
• Systems features that best allow an instructional design team to design quality learning tools.”

Sidhu (2010: 14-15) prefers the ADDIE Model of design: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation.

Sidhu, M.S. 2010. Technology-assisted problem solving for engineering education: interactive multimedia applications. Hershey: Engineering Science Reference.

Does experience-taking offer a means of simulated learning?

Encounters with fictional characters offer the potential exposure “a diverse array of personalities, perspectives, events, outcomes, and realizations” remark Geoff Kaufman and Lisa Libby (2012: 1). Literature allows the imaginary transportation to other places; to other times; into characters with personality traits different from us; or the engagement in actions or the holding of ideas that are being aspired to. Biographies and fictional tales allow for the experiencing of life journeys of other people, which in turn may be an eye opener to the minds, struggles, achievements of individuals form diverse backgrounds. However, what is described here by no means happen automatically. On the contrary, it is required that the reader move beyond being a mere reader or spectator. It requires connecting to characters to such an extent that one step “into their proverbial shoes and experience the story from their perspective” (2012: 2), essentially to image becoming the characters while being in the world of the narrative. Kaufman and Libby (2012: 1) identify this as experience-taking and define the concept as “the imaginative process of spontaneously assuming the identity of a character in a narrative and simulating that character’s thoughts, emotions, behaviors, goals, and traits as if they were one’s own”. They undertook research to explore which factors facilitate and which impede experience-taking. They also demonstrate the influential impact experience-taking may have on the self-concepts, goals and actions of engaged readers. They further differentiate experience-taking from perspective-taking.

Kaufman and Libby (citing Oatley 1999, 2012: 2) suggests that experience-taking occurs when “readers simulate the events of a narrative as though they were a particular character in the story world, adopting the character’s mindset and perspective as the story progresses rather than orienting themselves as an observer or evaluator of the character”. In order to succeed in experience-taking, the reader need to set aside key aspects of own identity—“such as their beliefs, memories, personality traits and ingroup affiliations—and instead assume the identity of a protagonist, accepting the character’s decisions, outcomes, and reactions as their own” (Kaufman & Libby, 2012: 2).

It is suggested, based on the prediction and research findings of Kaufman and Libby (2012), that the better a simulation is capable to evoke experience-taking and to enable the participant to mimic the character’s subjective experience, the better is the potential of adapting self-concept, attitudes, and behaviour.

Kaufman, G. F.; Libby, L. K. 2012. Changing beliefs and behavior through experience-taking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Mar 26.

Visit also: 'Losing Yourself' in a Fictional Character Can Affect Your Real Life

Oatley, K. 1999. Meetings of minds: Dialogue, sympathy, and identification, in reading fiction. Poetics, 26, 439–454. doi:10.1016/S0304-422X(99)00011-X

Flexibility value of work-based learning

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 26) indicates that “there is an increased interest in workplace learning” and “that those in work are increasingly undertaking work-based learning qualifications” for a number of good reasons:

• People can see a direct relevance between their studies and their role in the workplace’
• Those studying can obtain support from employers.
• Work-based programmes enable individuals to structure their studies around their individual interests and professional development.
• Those studying may negotiate the focus of study, context, timescales and their assessment.
• Such programmes allow for flexible fitting into working and personal lives.
• Studying towards an accredited qualification adds to commitment to professional roles held.
• Seeking career progression and increased earning through programmes.

Roodhouse (2010: 26-27) cites Durrant, Rhodes and Young (2009) that indicate the value of work-based learning for employers, namely:

• Employees execute real work projects resulting in direct benefits for the employer.
• Employees are motivated and focus more specifically on the challenges of the organisation.
• Employees engaged in work-based learning programmes are intimately engaged in organisational processes.
• Tangible and visible investment in the development of employees results in increased loyalty.
• Improved employee retention; advancement potential as result of enhanced capabilities and becoming a sought-after employer.
• Enabling employees on their path of self-actualisation and achieving their full potential.
• Employers can partner with a university in developing programmes that support both the professional development of employees as well as organisation improvement.
• The organisational culture can be changed through work-based learning programmes and projects.
• It is a means towards achieving organisational business plans.
• The university has a stake in employee development.

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

Work-based learning landscape densely populated

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 22) observes that the work-based learning landscape became more densely populated — located on various territories are diverse partners, players and cultures. A notion that frequents discourses is flexibility. Both organisations and higher education are required to respond rapidly and flexibly to changes in labour needs. This may imply working collaboratively in order to most effectively achieve goals. Concomitant with the need for flexible organisations is an emphasis on flexible learning with regard to modes of delivery, assessment methodologies, contexts, levels of learning within and across organisations. With result that flexible learning and work-based learning are used almost interchangeably.

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 23) points out that “online and distance learning mechanisms” along with work-based learning avenues are regarded important means of flexible learning. Simon Roodhouse (2010: 23) asserts that an emerging discrete university subject is work-based learning. It is taught, studied and researched as a ‘field of study’ in its own right. In contrast to historically sometimes undertaken part-time while at work; the demonstration of ability to reflect upon skills and knowledge acquired and the approach to work are important — often labelled ‘professional practice’. The development of occupational practice from work-based learning programmes is often separately assessed by employers. According to Roodhouse (2010: 23) “the emphasis in this model is on what has and can be learnt at work by carrying out the job, interacting with colleagues and identifying and reflecting on processes and procedures, the corporate memory relies on being employed.” Roodhouse (2010: 23) concludes by citing Durrant, Rhodes and Young (2009) “in short, work-based learning is for anyone who is regularly engaged in work (or undertakes periods of contractual work sufficiently long enough to complete a programme of study), whatever the nature of that work.”

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

The boundaries of work-based learning

The Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) of the South African Council for Higher Education (CHE), in its 2004 publication Criteria for Institutional Audits, defines (p. 26, emphasis added) work-based learning as “A component of a learning programme that focuses on the application of theory in an authentic, work-based context. It addresses specific competences identified for the acquisition of a qualification which relate to the development of skills that will make the learner employable and will assist in developing his/her personal skills. Employer and professional bodies are involved in the assessment of experiential learning, together with academic staff.” The publication further defines (p. 25) experiential learning as “A term traditionally used within the former technikon sector for work-based learning”.

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 21) presents the dominant theories underpinning work-based learning. He cites Costley (2001) as saying that work-based learning forms part of a cluster of concepts that include lifelong learning, employability and flexibility. Roodhouse (2010: 21) further cites Unwin and Fuller (2003) that differentiate between learning in the workplace and that is work-based. According the Unwin and Fuller (2003) workplace learning embraces all types of learning that “are generated or stimulated by the needs of the workplace” and may include formal or informal on-the-job, work-related off-the-job training as well as education. Roodhouse (2010: 21) additionally cites Boud and Symes (2000) that advocate workplace learning occurs as employees acquire new skills on a day-to-day basis in doing work, developing new approached and solve problems. Roodhouse (2010: 21-22) concurs with the University Vocational Awards Council (2005) observing that “it is evident there can be no single definition” of work-based learning, other than it is “learning (not teaching) and occurs in the workplace (rather on campus)” The University Vocational Awards Council (2005) further differentiates work related learning as “vocational programmes designed to prepare people for employment which often includes employer-determined competencies”. The University Vocational Awards Council (2005) asserts that work based learning in higher education is not specifically about training, but may take many forms and for a number of different purposes — “the emphasis is on identifying and demonstrating learning that has occurred through work based activity” regardless of how and where it may have been accomplished. Roodhouse (2010: 22) indicates that the guide to learning and employability of the Higher Education Academy supports the position emphasised directly above by stating that “it is not necessarily the experience of work itself that is paramount — rather it is the learning that an individual derives from that experience of work and from reflecting upon it.”

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

South Africa. 2004. Council for Higher Education, Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Institutional Audits. Pretoria: Compress. Retrieved from Internet on 8 September 2004, from http://www.che.ac.za/documents/d000061/CHE_Institutional-Audit-Criteria_June2004.pdf

Practicals are experiential learning not CWIL

Laboratory (or other) practicals serve a very important complementory purpose in that it gives learners/students experiential learning application of theory opportunities to better understand and internalise. However, by definition it is most likely not cooperative work-integrated learning (CWIL). Unless, industry provides the real-life application opportunities, for example the Statler Hotel at Cornell University. Then obviously practicals are CWIL (or an aspect thereof).

Then again, students often refer to a lab practical when they mean a practical exam taking place in a laboratory. Language and terminology are used democratically and people assign meaning as they see fit. This emphasises the importance of specifying or defining in order to make sure you are correctly understood.

Log as in shingles cut from wooden logs used for books

Keeping a log book is a common activity in learning from work experience. In many cases it is used as evidence of experience acquired and entries ratified by workplace supervisors. But where does the term log book originate from? I was pleasantly surprised today to stumble over the term among navy terminology: “In the early days of sailing ships, the ship's records were written on shingles cut from logs. These shingles were hinged and opened like a book. The record was called the ‘log book.’ Later on, when paper was readily available and bound into books, the record maintained it name.” Also of interest are terms such as:

• Hunky-Dory
• Long Shot
• Port Holes
• Taken Aback
• Took the Wind Out of His Sails

Drafting experiential education procedures for a university

Those who have been involved in a policy and/or procedure creation process at a university will know it is not an easy task. Substantial literature reviews (which I blogged about during the recent past) that informed a first draft had been undertaken. This draft (Download Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning) has been distributed by e-mail to key role players within the university for critique and comment. The commentary received has been incorporated and a second draft made institutionally available on Intranet and called for commentary through the university's daily e-news mail (Download 2nd Draft of Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning).

At this point a meeting with a senior educational-support line manager resulted in further review and supplementation. A third draft -- Download 3rd Draft of Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning has been produced, which served as discussion document with several key stakeholders. Following thorough consultation and incorporation of input, contributions, commentary, critique and recommended structural changes the process has since arrived at a sixth draft -- Download 6th draft towards a Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning. The sixth draft got formally tabled at a committee within the structure and accepted in principle - subject to a few changes. This new version (Download Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning DRAFT 2-1 - apologies for the hyperlinks to Intranet pages that readers would not have access to) is now the official 2nd draft, for which a powerpoint presentation (Download Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning) had been prepared in order to present it at a next level internal committee.

Ultimately a Procedural Manual for Experiential Learning had been presented to Senate 13 June 2012 and approved, whereafter it was placed on Intranet with the University Council approved Policy for Experiential Learning.

Three modes of experiential education

The Best Practices for Legal Education (2007) publication of the Clinical Legal Education Association (CLEA) represents the fruit of 25 years of rich dialogue among American law teachers, lawyers, and judges, regarding the education of lawyers. In the foreword is stated that the American Bar Association convened a 1984 conference ‘Legal Education and the Profession: Approaching the 21st Century’. The foreword further states that in 1987 Justice Rosalie Wahl of the Minnesota Supreme Court and Chair of the ABA Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar rhetorically asked:

Have we really tried in law school to determine what skills, what attitudes, what character traits, what quality of mind are required of lawyers? Are we adequately educating students through the content and methodology of our present law school curriculums to perform effectively as lawyers after graduation?

The purpose of this elaborate prologue is to convey the credible nature of the three modes of experiential education identified in Chapter 5: Best Practices for Experiential Courses (pp 121 – 152, note that the page numbers of individual online chapters differ from the full publication) of the CLEA Best Practices for Legal Education (2007: 122), namely:

• In-house law clinics offering students opportunities to represent clients or perform other professional roles under the supervision of members of the faculty
• Externships — where students represent clients or perform other professional roles under the supervision of practicing lawyers or they observe or assist practicing lawyers or judges in their work
• Simulation-based courses granting students hypothetical situations to assume professional roles and perform law-related tasks

These three modes, although many different terms are used, are common in many disciplines, for example:

• Practicals, laboratory work, applied field experiences facilitated and managed by lecturers
• Work-integrated/experiential/work-based learning in the occupational field under supervision of an experienced practitioner
• Simulated learning providing experience in hypothetical situations

Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998: 244) address externships as a means for law students to obtain a credit “working in legal settings”. It is interesting to note that “in the United States, students may not receive financial compensation for work which warrants educational credit”. Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998) identify both advantages and disadvantages with regard to externships. Potential advantages include “lower costs, variety of opportunities, work experience, service to the community, and flexibility”. As far as disadvantages are concerned, the main one identified is the potential “lack of control over the quality of the educational experience”.

Brayne, H; Duncan, N & Grimes, R. 1998. Clinical legal education: active learning in your law school. London: Blackstone.

Stuckey, R & Others. 2007. Best Practices for Legal Education. United States: Clinical Legal Education Association. Retrieved 2 November 2011 from: http://www.cleaweb.org/best-practices -- note the hyperlink to the best practices blog at the bottom of the web page.

What are experiential programmes?

The Clinical Legal Education Association (CLEA) Best Practices for Legal Education (2007: 165, note that the page numbers of individual online chapters differ from the full publication) defines experiential programmes as those “rely on experiential education as a significant or primary method of instruction”. The experiences of students in the roles of lawyers, in simulations, as well as “their observations of practicing lawyers and judges” play an important role. The integration of theory and practice through “combining academic inquiry with actual experience” is regarded as experiential education.

Learning is not education, because learning happens as part of life through experiences, observations and eavesdropping. Education comprises learning opportunities that were designed; are managed; and may involve guided experience. Although law students may derive valuable learning experiences from part-time work experiences in legal settings, the CLEA Best Practices for Legal Education (2007: 165) argues cannot be regarded “experiential education because the learning in such environments is not necessarily accompanied by academic inquiry”.

Stuckey, R & Others. 2007. Best Practices for Legal Education. United States: Clinical Legal Education Association. Retrieved 2 November 2011 from: http://www.cleaweb.org/best-practices

Instructional design mediates between learning theory and educational practice

In 1900 John Dewey already asserted the need for a mediating science between learning theory and educational practice; reports Akilli (2007: 7); yet the origins of instructional design dates back to World War II.

Akilli (2007: 9) reports further that since the 1990s six factors significantly impacted instructional design practices, namely:

• Performance technology movement
• Constructivism
• Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPPSc)
• Rapid prototyping
• Increasing use of Internet for distance education
• Knowledge management endeavours

Akilli (2007: 8) conveniently uses the term instructional design/development (IDD) because it covers the width and depth of activities involved in analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation. Although the number of IDDMs published increased the quality did not. An instructional design & development model (IDDM) includes at least five aspects (p. 9):

• Analysis of the setting and learner [student] needs
• Design of a set of specification for an effective, efficient and relevant learner [student] environment
• Development of all learner [student] and management materials; and
• Evaluation of the results of the development both formatively and summatively; and
• Distribution and monitoring of the learning environment across various settings, over an extended period of time

It is believed that some IDDMs only fit “narrow, well-defined, and static scenarios, because they are process-orientated rather than people-orientated, and use clumsy, bureaucratic, and linear approaches” (Akilli, 2007: 10). Instead IDDMs ought “to reflect the dynamic, complex, and non-linear nature of the design process” (p. 11). Adoption of “new scientific models, such as hermeneutics, fuzzy logic, and chaos theory” are suggested.

• Hermeneutics addresses the socio-historic context of individuals decoding and creating meanings.
• Chaos theory seeks self-similarity and self-organisation evident from repeating patterns at different complexity levels, such as a fractal.
• Fuzzy logic entails belief that reality can seldom be well represented in a bivalent manner; instead reality is multivalent with several in-between values; it is probabilistic; with continua measures.

Akilli, GK. 2007. Games and simulations: a new approach in education? In D Gibson; C Aldrich & M Prensky. 2007. Games and simulations in online learning: research and development frameworks (pp 1 – 20). Hershey: Information Science Publishing.

Simulations are interactive abstractions of real-life

Akilli (2007: 4) defines a simulation “as an interactive abstraction or simplification of some real life … or any attempt to imitate a real or imaginary environment or system”.

Although a substantial body of literature accumulated about simulations, Akilli (2007: 5) observes that it is still vague if games and/or simulations influence the learning of students in a positive way. Some literature does, however, describe the effects on:

• Discovery learning strategies
• Problem solving skills
• Computer usage skills
• Intellectual, visual and motor skills of students
• The engagement and interactivity of students
• Motivation to take responsibility for own learning

Evidence suggests, according to Akilli (2007: 6) “the use of games as instructional tools” in 3000 B.C. in China. Despite re-entry of use in the educational context in 1950s; games and simulations only became part of formal instructional design in the 1970s. However, it is reported that instructional designers encounter two problems:

• Absence of available comprehensive design paradigms — addressed through the publication referenced
• Lack of well-designed research findings — existing are mainly perceived reactions of students

Akilli, GK. 2007. Games and simulations: a new approach in education? In D Gibson; C Aldrich & M Prensky. 2007. Games and simulations in online learning: research and development frameworks (pp 1 – 20). Hershey: Information Science Publishing.