Learning in vivo

eService to enable experiential learning for online programmes

Constructing experiential learning for online or distance learning qualifications, presents specific challenges. Interactions, both among students and with teaching staff, are further considered essential to the online or distance learning environment. Preparing students academically is not sufficient; higher education institutions are accountable to society to prepare students for the complex issues they will as graduates encounter in the workplace. Experiential learning serves a vehicle with regard to the latter.

Higher education institutions have embraced service-learning as “a form of experiential education in which students engage in activities that address human and community needs and have structured opportunities to participate in activities designed to promote their learning and development” (Strait & Sauer, 2004: 62). Service-learning fosters critical thinking and interpersonal skills in that students provide community service as part of the curriculum of their qualification/s; learn about the community context and reflect about it; and gain an understanding of the connection between academic studies and the service rendered.

Conventional service-learning of residential higher education institution is generally in proximity to the institution where students are studying and access therefore relatively easy. With online or distance learning students are scattered and based in their own communities, which may be diverse. The challenge is to facilitate quality service-learning experience of multiple students in multiple communities. This type of distributed service-learning Strait and Sauer (2004: 62) call eService.

The published article shares the eService model and scope of attempts. A Language and a science application are portrayed. The authors share what the learned and challenges. They conclude with suggestions and future plans.

Strait, J. & Sauer, T. 2004. Constructing experiential learning for online courses: the birth of e-service. Educause Quarterly, 1(1), January 2004, 62-65. Retrieved from Internet 28 March 2013 from: http://www.educause.edu/ero/article/constructing-experiential-learning-online-courses-birth-e-service

Eight categories of assessing work-integrated learning

Sonia Ferns and Keri Moore (2012) indicate that assessment of fieldwork generally comprise three broad elements, namely (a) actual workplace performance; (b) a record of the experience (diary or journal); and (c) a reflection on the work-based experience. However, they mapped eight categories of assessment in use for assessing student outcomes from fieldwork placements:

• Case Studies research on cases: applying disciplinary knowledge in a professional context, roles, ethics, and responsibilities, systems, processes and lateral and higher order thinking, debates. Can be inter-professional or discipline specific.
• Reflection/portfolio: Reflection of work place experience and collection of evidence.
• Simulation: Institutional based assessment intended to replicate the workplace environment e.g., role play including Objective Structured Clinical Examinations (OSCE), peer and self-assessment.
• Knowledge test: Testing recall of facts such as online quizzes or multiple choice quizzes (MCQ).
• Performance - real-time in situ: Practical assessment of work place performance - detailed understanding of disciplinary systems, roles, ethics, and responsibilities, systems, processes and lateral thinking, proficiency in basic disciplinary skills, communication and core disciplinary knowledge.
• Oral Presentations: oral test - detailed understanding of disciplinary systems, roles, ethics, and responsibilities, systems, processes and lateral thinking.
• Written task: Essays or reports (other than case studies) higher order thinking.
• Industry-based case study: Investigation of actual work place scenarios.

Their research findings include, among others, some interesting graphs about frequencies of use of the above mentioned assessment types; and of graduate attributes assessed.

Ferns, S. & Moore, K. 2012. Assessing student outcomes in fieldwork placements: An overview of current practice. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 13(4), 207-224.

E-portfolios and assessment via mobile technologies

The South African Council for Higher Education (CHE) imperatives with regard to programme (qualification) accreditation include, among others:

• That the programme must bring about an understanding within students about the specifics of the occupation for which they are being trained.
• That the students should master the techniques and skills required for a specific profession or occupation.
• And where feasible that work-based learning and placement in a work-based environment should form an integral part of the curriculum.

The CHE imperatives with regard to work-integrated learning further include (1) a mentoring system that enables the student to recognise her/his strengths and weaknesses in his/her work, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices; as well as (2) regular and systematic monitoring. Mobile devices may well enable both these.

However, Coulby, Laxton, Boomer and Davies (2011) caution that without a sound pedagogical rationale for the use of mobile devices; technical and infrastructural realities may very possibly reduce student engagement.

Higher educational health and social care curricula often comprise a blend of classroom instruction (in residential education); simulations and work-based placement/s. The latter provide for learning opportunities and the assessment of competencies and professional attributes that cannot be cannot be replicated in the former two. The authentic nature of work-based placement/s enables holistic preparation; preparing graduates for professional practice, including the culture and practices of the particular community of practice. Primary care community clinics are utilised for placements in teaching. (Coulby, et al citing Billet, 2001; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Vygotsky, 1978).

Although work-based placements are regarded essential; Coulby, et al realise that these learning and teaching environments are challenged by practical and sometimes complex issues such as:

• Unreliable or restricted access to PCs and IT infrastructure; resulting in a lack of access to contemporary information; learning materials and social networks.
• Students experiencing uncertainty due to inadequate feedback on their performance resulting in unpreparedness; as well as insufficient monitoring, mentoring and tutoring (pastoral care) due to inadequate resources.

A potential solution explored is the ‘Assessment and Learning in Practical Settings’ (ALPS) programme, which employed mobile technologies. Common competencies, representing ‘readiness’ for professional practice were identified and developed into mobile assessment tools—which enable and encourage students to seek a spectrum of assessment opportunities such as from peers in the health and social care professions; from service users (patients); and self-reflection. The ‘ALPS’ assessments are completed are automatically captured online in e-portfolios; which in turn enable tutor and student review and commentary—in this way future practice of students are shaped and high-level scaffolding feasible. The University of Leeds, for example, has several hundred students in six different discipline/qualification cohorts.

Coulby, C; Laxton, J; Boomer, S & Davies, N. 2011. Mobile technology and assessment: A case study from the ALPS (Assessment and Learning in Practical Settings) programme, pp. 51-70. In N Pachler, C Pimmer & J Seipold (Eds). 2011. Work-based Mobile Learning — concepts and cases. Oxford: Peter Lang.

Are computer games constructive tools to foster learning?

Konstantin Mitgutsch (2012: 572) shares “insights into the experience-based process of learning and its recursive motion, structures, and patterns”—“the recursive process of experiencing unknown situations and of restructuring former experiences”. He starts (p. 571) by asking the blog title question and by indicating it “reaches back to the roots of the institutionalization of education in general”. He continues to indicate that “ludologists, educators, psychologists, anthropologists, and philosophers” in the 18^th and 19^th centuries recognised and promoted the potential of playing. He adds that “players achieve an enormous amount of information through playing digital games”.

Digital games have been capturing academic interest since the early 1980s. Initially the dominant focus of research had been on risks and environmental effects. In contrast the focus of contemporary research shifted to the “positive and beneficial aspects of playing”—“A frequently applied term used to describe learning in games is digital game-based learning (DGBL)” (Mitgutsch, 2012: 572-3). He quotes the Federation of American Scientists (2006: 3) believes that “computer games are a constructive tool to foster learning”:

The success of complex video games demonstrates games can teach higher-order thinking skills such as strategic thinking, interpretative analysis, problem solving, plan formulation and execution, and adaptation to rapid change.

Although the PC-games industry develop and sell games that foster learning, it must be kept in mind that the focus is on profits and market preferences, rather than on an educational rationale. Mitgutsch (2012: 574-5) summarises literature that focus on reasons why computer games engage learners as well as several aspects that support the learning process.

Learning “is often reduced to an act of acquiring” while it is often overlooked “that every learning process starts with a particular experience of something”—people cannot necessary “choose to make a particular experience like” ordering from a catalogue; instead experience happens (Mitgutsch, 2012: 575). John Dewey in 1916 pointed out that learning from experience entails making backward and forward connections between what is done/tried and what is gained as result—it is not a linear act of acquiring; but rather “a circular process of suffering, doing, experimenting, transferring, and playing”. Games offer exploratory territories and therefore serve as powerful learning enablers.

Mitgutsch, K. 2012. Learning through play – a delicate matter: experience-based recursive learning in computer games, Chapter 36, pp. 571 - 584. [Retrieved 25 June 2012 from: http://www.springerlink.com/content/h2534141vvm55m32/fulltext.pdf] in J. Fromme & A. Unger (eds). 2012. Computer Games and New Media Cultures—A Handbook of Digital Games Studies. Dordrecht: Springer Science and Business Media. Retrieved 25 June 2012 from: http://www.springerlink.com/content/978-94-007-2776-2/#section=1083651&page=1

Sensory information type and processing preference

In order to optimise learning through simulated experiences, the Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model (FSLSM) is recommended. People exhibit different ways they prefer to learn and by incorporating different learning styles in teaching plans learning is made easier. Graf, Viola, Leo and Kinshuk (2007) observe that FSLSM is often used in the design of technology-enhanced learning. The learning styles models of Kolb (1984) and Honey and Mumford (1982)—in contrast to Felder and Silverman (1988)—classify learners into a few groups. FSLSM describes learning styles in more detail, distinguishing four dimensions depicted below (Sidhu, 2010: 23):

Graf, Viola, Leo and Kinshuk (2007) further points out that FSLSM is based on tendencies. They point out that although learners with a strong preference for certain learning style may experience difficulty if the teaching style does not match their preferred learning style; indeed sometimes behave differently. They further convey that educational researchers in recent years investigated how incorporating learning style models impact technology-enhanced learning and found that FSLSM is highly appropriate for hypermedia courseware. It has been found that when students do an online course that matched their preferred learning style they achieved significantly better results compared to students who took a course that did not match.

The first dimension—sensory/intuitive—Students that prefer learning facts and concrete learning material have a sensing learning style. Such students prefer standard approaches in solving problems; to relate the learned material to the real world; and tend to be more patient with details. They are generally realistic, sensible and practical. Intuitive learners, by contrast, prefer learning abstract learning material, such as the underlying theories and their meanings. Such students tend to be innovative and creative as well as more able to discover possibilities and relationships.

The second dimension—visual/verbal—Students with a visual preference learn and retain best what they have seen, for example pictures, diagrams, and flow-charts. Verbal learners derive more from textual representations, both written and spoken.

The third dimension—active/reflective—addresses different ways of processing information. Some students learn best by actively engaging; trying out and by applying the learning material. They further tend to prefer communicating and by working in groups where they can converse. Other students, in contrast, prefer to reflect and think about learning material. They prefer working alone or possibly in a small group or with a good buddy.

The fourth dimension—sequential/global—is about characterising students according to their understanding. Those students that learn in small incremental steps in linear progression are sequential learners. They prefer following logical step-by-step paths towards solutions and are interested in details. Global learners, however, use holistic thinking processes learning in large leaps. Such students tend to absorb learning material almost randomly, not necessary seeing connections initially but suddenly grasp the whole picture. They are capable to solve complex problems; to find connections between dissimilar areas; and to put things together in novel ways. However, they can seldom explain how they did it. Global learners prefer overviews and broad knowledge.

Sidhu (2010: 23) poses four questions:

1. What type of sensory information is most perceived?
2. What type of information does the student preferentially perceive?
3. How does the student prefer to process information?
4. How does the student characteristically progress towards understanding?

Graf, S.; Viola, S.R.; Leo, T & Kinshuk. 2007. In-Depth Analysis of the Felder-Silverman Learning Style Dimensions. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, Fall 2007, 40(1). Accessed on Internet 31 May 2012 from: http://wit.at/people/graf/publications/graf_viola_kinshuk_leo_JRTEjournal.pdf

Sidhu, M.S. 2010. Technology-assisted problem solving for engineering education: interactive multimedia applications. Hershey: Engineering Science Reference.

Attributes and learning-styles of students affect their learning

Sidhu (2010: 16) identifies the following attributes that may hinder or improve learning:

• Basic background knowledge of the subject matter / discipline / field of study
• Prior academic performance impacts on a student’s performance
• Degree of exposure to contemporary educational technologies — the use of computer-based learning is enabled if students already acquired PC usage skills
• The impact of the learning styles of students have been extensively researched

Depicted below are Kolb’s as well as Honey and Mumfords learning style models, some of the most well known models:

http://www.businessballs.com/kolblearningstyles.htm

http://www.nonformality.org/2006/04/excuse-misuse-or-abuse/

Kolb’s experiential learning styles are in black, Honey and Mumford’s in red.

http://pmj.bmj.com/content/83/982/518.full

http://rphrm.curtin.edu.au/2000/issue2/outcomes.html

Sidhu, M.S. 2010. Technology-assisted problem solving for engineering education: interactive multimedia applications. Hershey: Engineering Science Reference.

Work-based learning landscape densely populated

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 22) observes that the work-based learning landscape became more densely populated — located on various territories are diverse partners, players and cultures. A notion that frequents discourses is flexibility. Both organisations and higher education are required to respond rapidly and flexibly to changes in labour needs. This may imply working collaboratively in order to most effectively achieve goals. Concomitant with the need for flexible organisations is an emphasis on flexible learning with regard to modes of delivery, assessment methodologies, contexts, levels of learning within and across organisations. With result that flexible learning and work-based learning are used almost interchangeably.

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 23) points out that “online and distance learning mechanisms” along with work-based learning avenues are regarded important means of flexible learning. Simon Roodhouse (2010: 23) asserts that an emerging discrete university subject is work-based learning. It is taught, studied and researched as a ‘field of study’ in its own right. In contrast to historically sometimes undertaken part-time while at work; the demonstration of ability to reflect upon skills and knowledge acquired and the approach to work are important — often labelled ‘professional practice’. The development of occupational practice from work-based learning programmes is often separately assessed by employers. According to Roodhouse (2010: 23) “the emphasis in this model is on what has and can be learnt at work by carrying out the job, interacting with colleagues and identifying and reflecting on processes and procedures, the corporate memory relies on being employed.” Roodhouse (2010: 23) concludes by citing Durrant, Rhodes and Young (2009) “in short, work-based learning is for anyone who is regularly engaged in work (or undertakes periods of contractual work sufficiently long enough to complete a programme of study), whatever the nature of that work.”

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

The boundaries of work-based learning

The Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) of the South African Council for Higher Education (CHE), in its 2004 publication Criteria for Institutional Audits, defines (p. 26, emphasis added) work-based learning as “A component of a learning programme that focuses on the application of theory in an authentic, work-based context. It addresses specific competences identified for the acquisition of a qualification which relate to the development of skills that will make the learner employable and will assist in developing his/her personal skills. Employer and professional bodies are involved in the assessment of experiential learning, together with academic staff.” The publication further defines (p. 25) experiential learning as “A term traditionally used within the former technikon sector for work-based learning”.

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 21) presents the dominant theories underpinning work-based learning. He cites Costley (2001) as saying that work-based learning forms part of a cluster of concepts that include lifelong learning, employability and flexibility. Roodhouse (2010: 21) further cites Unwin and Fuller (2003) that differentiate between learning in the workplace and that is work-based. According the Unwin and Fuller (2003) workplace learning embraces all types of learning that “are generated or stimulated by the needs of the workplace” and may include formal or informal on-the-job, work-related off-the-job training as well as education. Roodhouse (2010: 21) additionally cites Boud and Symes (2000) that advocate workplace learning occurs as employees acquire new skills on a day-to-day basis in doing work, developing new approached and solve problems. Roodhouse (2010: 21-22) concurs with the University Vocational Awards Council (2005) observing that “it is evident there can be no single definition” of work-based learning, other than it is “learning (not teaching) and occurs in the workplace (rather on campus)” The University Vocational Awards Council (2005) further differentiates work related learning as “vocational programmes designed to prepare people for employment which often includes employer-determined competencies”. The University Vocational Awards Council (2005) asserts that work based learning in higher education is not specifically about training, but may take many forms and for a number of different purposes — “the emphasis is on identifying and demonstrating learning that has occurred through work based activity” regardless of how and where it may have been accomplished. Roodhouse (2010: 22) indicates that the guide to learning and employability of the Higher Education Academy supports the position emphasised directly above by stating that “it is not necessarily the experience of work itself that is paramount — rather it is the learning that an individual derives from that experience of work and from reflecting upon it.”

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

South Africa. 2004. Council for Higher Education, Higher Education Quality Committee. Criteria for Institutional Audits. Pretoria: Compress. Retrieved from Internet on 8 September 2004, from http://www.che.ac.za/documents/d000061/CHE_Institutional-Audit-Criteria_June2004.pdf

Placement of students for practice-based experiences is insufficient

The topic of this post partially reflect one of the five key knowledge contributions derived from Professor Stephen Billett’s ALTC National Teaching Fellowship on curriculum and pedagogic bases for effectively integrating practice-based experiences. The five include (emphasis added):

• “Firstly, it is necessary to include the personal processes of experiencing and reconciliation what is experienced by learners in each of the settings”;
• “Secondly, consideration of how students engage with the experiences and pedagogic practices is central to the richness of learning”
• “Thirdly, merely providing practice-based experiences for students is insufficient unless those experiences are enriched through preparation, engagement and opportunities to share and reconcile what has been contributed by these experiences”
• “Fourthly, the findings highlight the importance of enacting pedagogic practices that are most likely to develop engaged and critical practitioners”
• “Fifthly, the need to engage, prepare and extend students as active and agentic learners is central to the effective integration of experiences across practice and higher education settings, their ability to engage in professional practice and their becoming effective critical and reflexive practitioners”.

Work integrated learning (WIL) is defined as “the process whereby students come to learn through experiences in educational and practice settings and reconcile and integrate the contributions of those experiences to develop the understandings, procedures and dispositions, including the criticality and reflexivity, required for effective professional practice”.

The curriculum includes “the kinds of learning experiences in practice settings and higher education institutions and how they are organised, sequenced and enacted”. Sub-categories of curriculum are identified, namely:

• “Intended curriculum – what is intended to occur by sponsors or developers in terms of educational goals (i.e. what should be learnt) and learning outcomes as a result of the curriculum being implemented.”
• “Enacted curriculum – what is enacted as shaped by the resources available, the experiences and expertise of teachers and others, their interpretation of what was intended, their values and the range of situational factors that shape students experiences.”
• “Experienced curriculum – what students experience when they engage with what was intended through what is enacted, and how they learn through that experiencing, even that which is unintended by those who plan and enact the curriculum.”

Billett, S. 2011. Curriculum and pedagogic bases for effectively integrating practice-based experiences (final report). Australian Learning & Teaching Council (ALTC).

This work is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Australia Licence. Under this Licence you are free to copy distribute, display and perform the work and to make derivative works. Download Billett-S-Griffith-NTF-Final-report-2011

CWIE assessment should take into account the socially mediated and participatory nature of learning

The above is agued by Eames (2003, in Hodges 2011: 53) because individual students rarely work alone in the workplace, which are “inherently interactive, collegial and interdependent”. The learning of students and their performance are influence by a variety of factors beyond the control of the student. Assessment that “take[s] into account the socially mediated and participatory nature of learning” requires “boundary crossing into communities of work practice” by, for example, “involving students is critically reflecting on their workplace experiences” (Hodges 2011: 55). The incorporation of critical reflection into a range of assessable learning evidence “enables students to justify and validate their claims for learning”. Substantial and important learning in the workplace occurs spontaneously and informally by shear engagement in daily work, observation and interaction with other.

Hodges (2011: 54) points out that assessment is usually “framed within the” curriculum (the pre-determined learning outcomes), which often ignores the setting of learning. Instead, pre-set learning outcomes should be considered “broad intentions and directions for learning that allow for unanticipated, emergent learning …” (p. 56). He argues (p. 54) for “sustainable assessment”, which considers both the immediate and the future abilities of students—that help “develop knowledge, skills, and abilities” which can be transferred to future contexts and challenges.

Hodges, D. 2011. The assessment of student learning in cooperative and work integrated education (pp. 52-61). In R.K. Coll & K.E. Zegwaard (Eds.). International handbook for cooperative and work-integrated education (2^nd ed.). World Association for Cooperative Education Inc.

Experiential training in distance education for socially vulnerable persons

Combating poverty and social exclusion calls for more flexible forms of training and skills development of vulnerable groups such as lone parents. The European Community defines lone parent families as those in which under aged children grow up with one parent. The absence of the other parent could be due to for example death, divorce, neglect, or casual absence.

When devising effective education or training programs for lone parents the barriers confronting these individuals must be considered and measures developed to overcome them. Primary barriers are low self-esteem; diminished personal quest due to unpleasant circumstances; lacking information and desire to enrol for training; limited accessibility due to family commitments; inadequate training methods, techniques and principles appropriate to their circumstances; and vague relevance of programme content to their needs, interests and characteristics. International adult education literature the personal experiences of adults must inform the design of learning opportunities and that continuing adult education more efficient when a hybrid or blended education approach is offered. In addition to class room teaching/training the following methods are encouraged: distance education; experiential learning; learning by doing; self-learning; collaborative learning; and adaptive learning.

Emphasis on the notion that people are not mere receivers of new knowledge and experiences, disharmony is used as a driving force for learning. Past lived experiences and current perspectives of social reality is contrasted with what potentially could be. Out of this interpretation of disjuncture learning can be derived. Experiential learning principles and student-centered techniques, such as brainstorming, role-playing, simulations, group exercises and case studies provide socially vulnerable persons to draw from previous experiences and knowledge, and to share these with members of the rest of the group in order to find solutions to problems.

Distance education, through Internet and personal computer, enable lone parents to engage in educational programmes. Technology allows chatting with one or more participants, through text, sound and even video. Web casted scenarios in the form of case studies or role plays enable participants to develop capabilities through analysis and reflection.

Papadakis, S; Fragoulis, L & Phillips, N. 2008. Supporting lone parents: experiential training techniques in distance education. Development and Learning in Organizations, 22 (5), 9-11. Electronically accessed from Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1477-7282.

Reflection by word association

Reflection comes naturally for some, but other struggle to become reflective. Chapter 12 of A Student Guide to Clinical Legal Education and Pro Bono contains an activity which would enhance reflectivity. Kerrigan and Murray (2011) suggest thinking about different terms for each letter of the word REFLECTION and give some examples. My suggestion would be to apply some of the ‘synonyms’.

R	reviewing, reasoning, rethinking, recapturing, reconstructing, reactions, responses, refining, realising, rigorous, retrospective
E	experience, emotions, experimenting, externalising, evolving
F	feelings, focus, forward moving
L	lifelong learning, linking (ideas or experiences), limitless
E	external issues, ethics, exploring, evaluation, engagement, explanations
C	critique, conscious, concepts, changes, context, curiosity, conclusions, cyclical, consequences, consideration, challenge, cognitive
T	thinking, trying out new ideas, taking stock, transforming, testing
I	ideas, improving, insight, inquiry, interpretation, interaction, integration, implications, identifying, interrogation
O	observing, objective, open mind
N	new experiences, new ideas, noticing

Kerrigan, K & Murray, V. (eds) 2011. A Student Guide to Clinical Legal Education and Pro Bono. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan

Post-simulation reflection

Margaret Gredler (1992: 141 – 159) emphasises the role of post-simulation activities and the planning thereof. She asserts that simulations are experiential in nature in that participants “step into the assigned roles, accept the responsibilities and constraints and work through the problems and difficulties that arise in the execution of the roles”. To overcome the reality of can’t see the woods for the trees (because of active involvement in the simulation); bring the learning forth; and to maximise the learning; reflection about the simulation is essential.

Gredler (1992) discusses two experiential learning models, namely Kurt Lewin’s (a Gestalt theorist) group-dynamics model and Jean Piaget’s (a Swiss psychologist) cognitive development model.

Jaques (1985, referenced in Gredler) describes the adaptation of Lewin’s ideas in a five-part experiential learning cycle, which upon completion feeds into another cycle.

Piaget postulates that cognitive structures happens through two processes; namely by means of assimilation of new information into the existing to enrich; and by accommodating which can occur in two different ways. The one way of accommodation is modification in order to integrate new information; the other way is through reconstruction to a higher level of thinking.

Post-simulation reflection need to form part of and conclude the simulation. In a distance learning context, this could be achieved through online discussion.

Gredler, M. 1992. Designing and evaluating games and simulations, a process approach. London: Kogan Page.

Jaques, D. 1985. Debriefing, debriefing, 55 – 66. In M van Ments and K Hearndon (eds). Effective use of games and simulations. Loughborough: SAGSET, Loughborough Institute of Technology.

Simulations in context

Simulations have the power to challenge and alter the beliefs, as well as to promote flexibility with regard to decision making and management styles, argue Wolfe and Keys (1997). They emphasise the value of sensitivity to cultural diversity and appreciation for different values and perspectives, particularly in foreign global situations. “Unlike games, where everyone has a role of player with a duty to try to win, simulations require ‘professional behaviour, including professional ethics”, assert Jones (1995: 7). Simulations in group-settings offer experiential and active learning opportunities that are reasonably realistic and psychologically safe learning situations in that in these contexts psychological assumptions can be challenged; perspectives broadened; and critical reflection simulated (Wolfe & Keys, 1997).

A simulation should not attempt to reproduce reality, says Jones (1995: 9-10). The more an attempt is made to reproduce the real world with all the intricate complexities, he cautions, the more unworkable the simulations becomes. He puts forward four essential characteristics, namely:

• Simulation participants each have functional roles to fulfil, including the authority
• Given adequate information about the setting, problem or issue is essential — participants should not be required to invent the key facts (however improvisations and using imagination is encouraged); if participants are required, it is not a well designed simulation
• The lecturer does not play an active part in the carrying out the required action — a simulation is “a NON-TAUGHT event” [emphasis added], during which mistakes are “inevitable and desirable” — best characterised by “what actually goes on in the minds of the participants” (p. 12)
• Simulations are concluded with debriefing and reflection in order to appraise what happened and consolidate the learning

Jones (1995: 14) emphasises a clear differentiation of terminology and caution that wrong word-choices could cause simulations to go terribly wrong, because (wrong) words lead to (wrong) expectations which in turn lead to (inappropriate) behaviour:

Appropriate	Inappropriate
Simulation, activity, event Participant Facilitator (or organiser) Behaviour, function, profession Role (functional) Real-world responsible behaviour Real-world ethics Professional conduct	Game drama, role play, exercise Player, actor, puzzler, trainee, student [Lecturer, tutor], teacher, trainer, instructor Player, acting, staging, puzzling Role (acting a part) Winning (losing) the game Point scoring, having fun Performing the exercise (game, etc)

Jones, K. 1995. Simulations, a handbook for teachers and trainers. 3^rd edition. London: Kogan Page.

Wolfe, J & Keys, JB (eds). 1997. Business simulations, games and experiential learning in international business education. New York: International Business Press.

Avoid interferance in learning through attentive design

It is important for curriculum developers to understanding how the random assignment of learning activities and incongruent information can negatively affect learning. In particular, as the demand for simulations grows, so does the need for careful curriculum development in order to maximize learning. It is important to consider how learning is acquired and how information is retained in order to maximise the positive transfer of learning while minimising potential obstacles that may disrupt understanding.

Clapper (2011) highlights four important phases of learning:

1. Inquire phase — The aim of this phase is to facilitate the transferring in of frames of reference or schemata derived from past experiences related to the subject and knowledge accumulated. It is essential to keep in mind that while high-load prior work can impose a strain on working memory and will interfere with learning; successful transferring in of knowledge from prior work that is later found to be consistent with new learning results in positive learning transfer.
2. Gather phase — The aim of this phase is to enable the collection of information from various teaching and learning activities.
3. Process phase — During this phase information gathered is processed and synthesised. Once the information has been internalised through teaching and learning activities and reflection then positive learning transfer occurs.
4. Apply phase — The aim of this phase is to facilitate the transfer out of new knowledge to real-life settings. It is often the most difficult phase of learning.

Reflection-in-action is important throughout the four phases. Reflection-in-action involves stop and think to replay the experience (returning to); attending to the feelings evoked by the experience; and re-evaluating the experience in order to transfer the learning or move on. Learning designers and facilitators should be vigilant that learning environments may be creating interference and/or unintentionally providing conflicting information.

Clapper, T.C. 2011, May. Interference in learning: what curriculum developers need to know. Clinical Simulation in Nursing, 7(3), e77-e80.

Curriculum design decision responsive to stakeholder needs

The inclusion of work-integrated learning in the curriculum of an educational programme is a design decision, in response to stakeholder needs.

Stakeholder undertaking with regard to supporting work-integrated learning is crucial for the success thereof.

An educational institution that fails to grasp these two points is likely to struggle, if not fail, to make work-integrated learning work.

An educational institution that disregards continued stakeholder relationships underestimates the importance thereof.

An educational institute must ensure adequate representation of stakeholders in the design and/or revision of the curriculum. Such a curriculum-design collaboration must conclude which parts (if any) of the curriculum would be best achieved through real-life experience, rather than any other learning-mode. The occupational-field representation must consider it feasible to provide the relevant real-life learning contexts and mentors and undertake to make it happen.

The curriculum design and/or revision must never be an isolated event. An advisory structure, with adequate representation of stakeholders, must guide the offering of the programme and in particular the various aspects that enhance work-integrated learning, such as:

• Learning materials that guide the relevant real-life experiences would bring about the relevant learning.
• Materials to orientate students upon entry into work-integrated learning and guidelines for work-place mentors.
• Materials that would facilitate reflection on work experiences in order to bring about learning.
• Specifications and guidelines with regard to learning evidence required for summative assessment of work-integrated learning.
• Guidelines for the monitoring of the progress of students during work-integrated learning and formative assessment purposes.

Raw learning materials and learning tools

Sweitzer & King (2004:4-5) differentiates between classroom and internship learning with regard to two dimensions. I am adapting their description to distance education:

	Distance theoretical learning	Internship learning
The raw learning materials	Study guides, reading, tutorial letters, exercises, on-line discussions & tutorial sessions	Intellectual, physical and human experimental interactions—full of feelings and struggles. These emotions are not just a backdrop to the real-work experience, but every bit as real and important. Mastery of psyco-motor skills may also apply.
The learning tools	Memorise, analyse, synthesise and evaluate.	Experience must be processed and organised; reflective dialogue with self and others is a primary tool for learning; and relationships are the medium of internship.

Please note that Sweitzer & King (2004:3) use the internship to refer to a range terms of that entail an academic credit for experiences, for example field work/experience, cooperative/field education and practicum (terms they indicate no consensus exists on about the meaning).

Sweitzer & King (2004:6-7) further clarify the following terms (Download Sweitzer+King-terms):

• Placement or site—refers to the place where the student is working (gaining experience).
• Intern—refers to the student or volunteer who is working.
• Supervisor—person assigned by the placement site to mentor the student.
• Instructor—the academic staff member that oversees the student's placement.
• Coworker—refers to other people working at the placement.

Sweitzer, H.F. & King, M.A. 2004. The successful internship—transformation and empowerment in experiential learning, 2^nd edition. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole—Thompson Learning.

Commentary e-mailed by a peer:

"Thomas, my comments:

Perhaps consideration be given to differentiate between and internship and experiential learning/work integrated learning. Internship specifically refers to students after a qualification has been achieved, whilst experiential learning/WIL is while the student is busy with its qualification.

The principle of experiential learning applies to both however there might be a difference. I do recognize a difference since the one is part of a qualification and the students is perhaps less mature than a graduate (intern) who is more mature and is a graduate. Time is an important factor. Maturity in terms of cognitive, emotional, social skills  etc

Wrt internship, I would recommend the integration of the theories of learning which will explain many of the emotional, social and cognitive processes of the learner, in terms of EL/WIL which can be related to an intern as well.

Wrt Terminology:  

I prefer using a workstation instead of a placement site,

Instructor I am a bit uncomfortable with, I would rather use a term like a supervisor or mentor.

Hope this was of value Thomas!

Marius"

Tweets enrich learning from work

Tweet-sharing presents a potentially powerful means of spreading learning derived from work experiences for students during prerequisite in vivo learning; for members of a community of practice; for participants in a learning through work programme; etc. Download Academic tweeting to learn MG29Jan-4Feb2010 What do readers of this post think of the idea? Could tweets and re-tweets become the material for reflective practice?

Collective work-based learning

Raelin (2000: 66-100) discusses three kinds of collective work-based learning, namely:

• Action Learning
• Community of Practice
• Action Science

Action Learning

It is an educational strategy that entails groups seeking to derive learning from real-time (in vivo) problem solving. In about 1975, after conversion to adult membership of my congregation I engaged in entry-level instruction of catechumens. At the time the notion of learning by doing got impressed upon my mind. In trying to bring about learning, I have subsequently always tried to build in activity in learning facilitation. Raelin (2000: 66-7) remarks that such activities are useful; but neither sufficient to enable conversion of theory into tacit knowledge; nor for participants/delegates to challenge and reflect on their own theoretical assumptions. Only if people take real positions; are obliged to make moral judgements and required to defend those under pressure do real learning occur. Action learning teams present itself as a means to introduce work-based learning into a work environment.

Community of Practice

Raelin (2000: 75) asserts that "communities of practice evolve as people united in a common enterprise develop a shared history as well as particular values, beliefs, ways of talking, and ways of doing things". Membership is spontaneous and through involvement with one another—mutual engagement—in the process of pursuing the same practice. Problem solving together becomes (as a community) becomes a natural social activity and meanings are informally negotiated. Often knowledge creation is tacit and practices become interpersonally instinctive. A "shared repertoire, including routines, words, tools, ways of doing things, stories, gestures, concepts, and the like that symbolize their shared practice" (Raelin 2000: 76)emerges. Members of a community of practice often serve as gate keepers with regard to the practice.

Raelin (2000: 78) observes that facilitation might accelerate the process toward the emergence of a community of practice, but he expresses reservation if an organisation as a whole could become a community of practice—there are just too many barriers and politics. He discusses the use of Future Search (pp 24-25 of PsychDigest Vol 1 No 3; Download FutureSearch_AfronautHigherEducationlaunchpad-posternarrative) technology (p. 83), Open Space Technology (p. 84) and Virtual Team Learning (p. 85), but cautions about the latter that nobody has yet "invented a technology that replaces a pitcher of beer".

Action Science

When I saw this heading I have been most intrigued. Raelin (2000: 89) defines action science as "a work-based intervention strategy for helping learners increase their effectiveness is social situations through heightened awareness of their action and interaction assumptions". It is a form of 'double-loop' learning derived from becoming aware of a mismatch between your values and your actions and an internal commitment to embracing new or other. The term reflection-in-action—described as rethinking to discover how and what that has been done contributed to the expected or unexpected outcome—is preferred by some, e.g. Donald Schön (p. 90). A member of a community of practice would typically offer a frame of the situation a hand. The members collectively would then reflect upon the frame/s and start testing the underlying assumptions and reasoning processes that surface. The aim is to narrow the inconsistencies between espoused (what is advocated) theories versus theories-in-use (actual practice).

Raelin (2000: 90) agrees with Habermas's views and points out three types of knowledge:

1. Technical knowledge entails "predictions about observable events, physical or social"; may result in empirical or theoretical discourse; and "relies upon hypothetico-deductive logic".
2. Practical knowledge involves "social norms, ideals, values, and moral decisions"; that in the absence of empirical tests rely on tradition and authority. However, consensus derived through dialogue is preferred and metaphors often used to resolve contradictions. Ideally, practical discourse searches for meaning rather than trying to outlining causality.
3. Emancipatory knowledge is gained through critical self-reflection about the taken-for-granted assumptions. The validity of premises for interpretation or understanding is tested through reflective discourse.

People are often socially conditioned—Model I behaviour—which is "characterised by a need to control, maximize winning, suppress emotions, and be rational" Raelin (2000: 91) with minimal learning, but reinforcement of existing socialisation. In contrast, Model II behaviour, "is based on directly observable data" at hand and entails exchange of viewpoints—resulting in increased learning and producing of intended end-results. The table below (based Raelin 2000: 94) on serves as illustration:

	Model I behaviour	Model II behaviour
Contextual cue or triggering condition	An elderly woman is curious about the use of SMSes	Another elderly person, similar age, notices how efficient SMS communication is
Underlying assumptions	Cellphones are complex, I would not master it.	Believe it is possible to master the use of the SMS function of a cellphone
Action strategies	Is shown by a user (grandchild) what an SMS is and how to go about creating a message, sending it, receiving it, retrieving it and responding	Ask a user to demonstrate how to go about creating a message, sending it, receiving it, retrieving it and responding. Make notes how to go about and try SMSing.
Consequences in the behavioural world for learning	Promptly forgets and ask again in future when observing fellow residents of the retirement facility receiving SMSes	Master the use of the SMSes and enjoy the benefit of keeping in touch with relatives and friends

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Work-based learning model

Raelin (2000: 49-65) theorises about work-based learning firstly by comparing theory and practice modes of learning, there after explicit versus tacit forms of knowledge. He then builds a conceptual model by first looking at individual work-based learning, in terms of the two mentioned modes of learning and the two forms of knowledge:

	Explicit	Tacit
Theory:	Conceptualisation	Experimentation
Practice:	Reflection	Experience

He next turns to the organisation, as collective, and builds further on his model of work-based learning:

	Explicit	Tacit
Theory:	Applied science	Action learning
Practice:	Action science	Community of practice

Then he completes his pyramid-shape model (Raelin 2000: 64)

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.