Learning in vivo

Real-world learning opportunities help students increase their understanding

Real-world learning complement the methodological competence of students in applying problem-solving approaches, say Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010). Real-world learning affords students opportunities to critically reflect on, to negotiate and collaborate with academic supervisors and community project partners. Students get the opportunity to turn intellectual concepts and methods into personal practical ability. Learning from addressing real-world sustainability problems exposes students to “where the rubber hits the road”, according to Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 311). Students learn from the development of sustainability strategies and projects, within the context of real-life politics, culture, traditions, and existing processes. Real-world scenarios force students to explore and identify accountability; to hold the relevant people accountable; and to accept own accountability with respect to the real-world sustainability project agreement.

Although students are likely to develop key competencies in sustainability from real-world learning opportunities; the key competencies which students need to develop must be made known’ Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 313) caution that “the devil is in the details”. The design and implementation of the real-world learning determines the nature and scope of the experience. The “functional and progressive” model of integrating real-world learning into the curriculum comprises a number of loosely structured real-world learning experiences in preparation for the capstone experience. This is illustrated by Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 314) in Figure 1 below. The real-world learning is spread over four years. Three factors shape the nature of the learning, namely (1) the role of the instructors to design and facilitate; (2) the level of interaction of students with the partners in the community project; and (3) the different forms of collaboration. There is linear progression. Figure 2 illustrates the capstone module in more detail and Figure 3 indicates how the capstone-module option may help students develop certain key competencies but not necessary all/others.

Brundiers, K.; Wiek, A. & Redman C. L. 2010. Real-world learning opportunities in sustainability: from classroom into the real world. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 11 (4): 308-324.

Sustainability as emerging academic field challenges what is taught and how

If higher education graduates are to cope with society’s sustainability-challenges, universities must provide students with interactive, experiential, transformative, and real-world learning to suitably prepare them; say Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010). The authors undertook a synthesis of literature on sustainability education (an emerging academic field) with the view of determining how real-world learning can contribute to building key competencies in sustainability. Consensus exists that the capacity-uilding pathways of sustainability education should engage the “head, hands, and heart”.

Sustainability education is concerned with complex non-linear problems with long-term implications; that cut across economic, social, and environmental domains; not just on local but global scales; and involve high degrees of damage potential; and therefore urgency. These often manifest as a conglomerate of problems that require sophisticated “post-normal” solutions and elaborate problem-solving techniques; that challenges basic assumptions; and call for systems-thinking, anticipation, and participatory strategy-building models across established disciplines.

Key competencies in sustainability cannot be acquired by being told about sustainable development. Students need to see and work within a living learning place. They need to experience what a sustainable lifestyle means. Learning must focus on real-world problems, exposing students to corresponding real-world settings. A variety of learning models might be considered, for example project- and/or problem-based learning; service learning; and internships. However, not all real-world learning opportunities are appropriate. Some are more appropriate for extracurricular activities; whereas others do not relate well to the key features of sustainability. Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 311) present this “overview of key differences among dominant models of real-world learning formats”:

	Project-based learning	Service learning	Internship
Outcomes: what students learn/benefit	Collaborative problem-solving capacity	Education and teaching capacity	Professional working experience; career development
Practices: what students do	Collaborating with partners to develop solution approach	Educating people	Assisting or working on a professional project
Interaction with stakeholder	Two-way knowledge generation (co-production)	One-way knowledge transfer (students to community)	One-way knowledge transfer (employer to student and student to employer)
Integration of theory and practice	Explicit, supervised by faculty and stakeholder	Implicit, not supervised by faculty	Implicit, not supervised by faculty
Impacts on world	Systemic innovation	Support of social innovation and change	Modular innovation

Brundiers, K.; Wiek, A. & Redman C. L. 2010. Real-world learning opportunities in sustainability: from classroom into the real world. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 11 (4): 308-324.

The journal (IJSHE) is published by Emerald Group Publishing Limited in conjunction with Society of University Leaders for a Sustainable Future (ULSF).

Causes of the effectiveness of internships

Surprise is expressed about the apparent absence of clear evidence about the impact of internships, considering the extensive use thereof in higher education generally and business schools in particular. Narayanan—from Drexel University; Olk and Fukami—the University of Denver (2010: 62) found that “literature on internship experiences is largely descriptive and anecdotal”. They summarised 22 published studies between 1984 and 2003 and presented the following major findings in alphabetical order of citations:

• A consistent pattern of adjustment experienced by interns namely expectation, frustration and accommodation.
• Students have to adopt new ways to learn when moving from the university to the workplace, as well as learning new genres.
• An increase in internship programs had been observed (1997), with most programs fairly young; for credit only; occur during junior years; paid rather than unpaid; and require a written project. Many programmes neither have full- or part-time coordinators, nor require on-site visits. The responsibility for identifying internship sites are often share between students and others.
• The experience from internships is related to higher levels of self-concept crystallization. However, experiences are not related to increased occupational information, self-efficacy, decidedness, vocational commitment, or tendency to foreclose. Three characteristics of internships, namely task variety, feedback, and opportunities for dealing with people; linked significantly to self-concept crystallisation and self-efficacy, plus increased occupational information.
• Greater emphasis is placed by students on meaningful experiences to acquire a competitive edge in job market; than on furthering education.
• Academic assignments—seven proposed—can enhance the educational value of business internships.
• Internships increased in popularity because real-world experience enhances the prospects of employability. Within a context of increasing cost of education there is pressure that education would ensure employment.
• The value of internships is perceived to largely provide social and people skills; with limited improved academic skills.
• Learning in the workplace differs from learning in the classroom (academically).
• The socialisation of internship is complex and individualistic; comprising three phases (a) getting in, (b) breaking in, and (c) settling in.
• The perspectives of the three main internship players—namely programme directors/coordinators, industrial supervisors/mentors, and students—differed almost entirely. It is believed that the credibility of internships as learning experience would be enhanced by systemic procedures and standards.
• A notable difference between the perspectives companies and students is that higher ratings are assigned by students.
• Those students that did an internship compared favourably with regard to college performance; jobs offers; and age upon graduation. A racial predisposition, but no gender difference, had been identified.
• In-class exercises to facilitate socialization were reviewed and procedures suggested to facilitate such exercises.
• As result of internship experiences, students changed self-perceptions, preferences, some instrumental values, as well as work-specific needs.
• The use of structured power internship programmes to recruit, track and give a ready supply of the best college-age talent is described.
• Reporting what students like most/least about their internship position.
• Internships considered the most effective approach, according to business students and corporations to college recruitment. Suggestions made how companies can effectively implement internships
• Some support is given for more crystallisation of vocational self-concept and work values; as well as strong support for better employment opportunities. The level of ‘autonomy’ is a moderated outcome variable. In a second study students with internships were rated significantly higher by college recruiters.
• Contains discussion of issues of socialization, acculturation, motivation of student as employees, and the education-workplace relationships.
• The need to align institutional study to what is actually happening in the workplace: expectations need to be agreed upon and clear requirements are necessary.
• The specifics of certain communities of practice are embedded within and therefore not fully teachable.

Narayanan, V.K.; Olk, P.M. & Fukami, C.V. 2010. Determinants of Internship Effectiveness: An Exploratory Model. Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 9, No. 1, 61–80.

Synchronous online laboratory learning

Active laboratory experiment-interaction and problem-solving are considered essential parts of science and engineering education, because they enable direct acquisition of applicable knowledge for use in practical situations. Synchronous experimentation offers immediate feedback, rather than delayed. “Online (Remote) laboratories” report Auer, Edwards and Zutin (2011: 222) “available via internet” are therefore gaining importance. They define Online Engineering “as an interdisciplinary field utilising the areas of engineering, computing and telematics, where specific engineering activities like programming, design, control, observation, measuring, sensing, and maintenance are provided to both remote and local users in a live interactive setting over a distributed, physically dispersed network (for example: internet or intranet)”. They add that “high bandwidth internet connections world-wide and other derivative capabilities in the areas of real-time communication, control, teleconferencing, video streaming and others have made multi-site collaborative work, utilising state-of-the art equipment in remote laboratories across the globe a current reality”.

According to Auer, Edwards and Zutin (2011: 226) there are already a number of remote laboratories in operation and that the range of disciplines being catered for is growing as universities collaborate internationally. The portability and advancement of mobile technology further serve as powerful motivator for growth of online laboratory experiences.

Auer, M.E.; Edwards, A. & Zutin, D.G. 2011. Online laboratories in interactive learning environments, pp. 219-248. In N. Pachler; C. Pimmer & J. Seipold (eds). 2011. Work-Based Mobile Learning— Concepts and Cases. Oxford: Peter Lang.

Rhizomatous propagation of Co-op & Work-integrated Ed support

Propagating involves the breeding of specimens by natural processes from the parent stock. Rhizomes are creeping plant rootstalks or rootstocks that send out shoots and roots from its nodes. The word rhizome originates from New Latin rhizoma, meaning a "mass of roots"; which stems from Ancient Greek rhizóō, meaning "cause to strike root"; and rhiza, meaning "a root".

Cooperative and Work-integrated Education qualifications/programmes are distinguished by two characteristics, namely:

• Credit bearing work-experience forms an important part/s of the curriculum that is aimed at producing work-ready graduates.
• The curriculum is designed in conjunction with, supported by, and retained relevant by representation from the occupational-field that the programme is intended for.

Good Cooperative and Work-integrated Education practice is characterised by:

• An appropriate advisory system ensuring the retained relevance of the programme through providing regular updating input and critique about the existing curriculum.
• Continuous propagating and cultivating activities to retain and expand a supportive occupational community which is vital for (a) providing real-life work experience opportunities; as well as (b) mentoring of students by workplace supervisors during period of experience; and (c) evaluative input about the competence acquisition of students for graduation purposes.

The metaphor (rhizomatous propagation) suggests:

• Starting of a new garden from good quality rhizomes (irises, cannas and asparagus) — curriculum design in close collaboration with the vocational community and/or professional/statutory body.
• Keep the programme flavour just right by cooking/brewing with good quality rhizomes (ginger, hops and turmeric) — frequently consult the community of practice.
• The underground rhizome is crucial to longevity — foragers, insects, fungus, and fires may attempt to damage the qualification (the above-ground portion of an aspen colony), but a supportive group of practitioners will keep the qualification healthy and protected against threats.
• Rhizomes send out internodes that form roots from the bottom of the nodes and new upward-growing shoots from the top of the nodes — the members of the programme’s advisory system are instrumental in expanding the network of supportive organisations.
• Similar to a rhizome, a stolon (e.g. strawberry plants) grow long internodes that generates new shoots at the end — active marketing interventions takes place to generate wider support.
• A rhizome (also stem tuber or enlarged stolon) serves as storage organ that is often high in starch (e.g. common potatoes) — enabling survival during winter or drought.
• The rhizomes of some species grow above ground, e.g. iris species lie at the soil surface; whereas other are underground, e.g. bamboo — some members of the community of practice render explicit support whereas the contributions of other are equivocal.
• Generally rhizomes form a single layer, but some form a multi-tiered mass — in some communities of practice a qualification may lead to a variety of career paths, whereas in other it is limited.

Each credit equals 10 notional hours of learning

There is an argument that an average student should not be required to devote more than 10 hours for each credit. A 12 credit work-integrated learning module, it is argued, should therefore take 120 hours, if not:

• The curriculum is wrong
• The assignment is incorrect
• The WIL assignment is too long
• The assignment is not good enough

The argument disregards the time it takes for a student to settle in and to be orientated. The argument does not take into consideration the learning derived from various alternatives in real life. Neither does the argument take into consideration the reality that often a volume of mundane activities are required for an achievement. Few work places would be on the ready awaiting a student’s focussed exposure. In most real life situations work goes on and students learning from being present and making a contribution of some kind.

The advice from the bearer of the news is “make peace with it and move on…”

Patricia Anne Greening remarked on Facebook: "It also ignores such factors as outside distractions, poorly prepared or poorly presented material; and the state of the learner's health, and mental condition (e.g. sleepy, undernourished; stressed)."

Hi Thomas:

I do not agree that one credit equals 10 hours of learning.  Some years ago in Australia, there was an attempt by the government to enforce a similar rule and in the end they gave up for the reasons outlined on your blog.  It does not make sense.  I am not sure what can be learned in a short time in any work place.  The other issue is that if you focus on hours and credits, then you miss the learning bit.  What are the learning outcomes expected in work place learning?  How long does it take to achieve that learning?  What is the evidence for that learning?  And how long does it take to integrate the learning in the workplace with academic learning?

Cheers,

Lesley

______________________________
Lesley Cooper
Acting Principal/Vice-President
Wilfrid Laurier University
Brantford Campus
73 George Street
Brantford, Ontario   N3T 2Y3
CANADA

Hi Lesley, Thomas and others,

One of the issues for work placements papers is that it does not neatly fall into the ‘typical paper template’.  The typical point baring paper template is a one size fits all model – which may work well for academic taught papers but does not for placement papers, but nevertheless that is the default model.  We have the same situation here at Waikato, where our placement papers are 20 points (supposedly 200 hours of learning) whilst students are at least 400 hours in the workplace.  We found it best to avoid drawing direct links to points and hours in the workplace – and most people recognise that placements are different.  

However, if forced in situation of drawing links to hours on placement and credit points, the first question to ask is, ‘is every hour in the workplace a quality learning hour?  We would argue not.  Probably initially it is, and perhaps also at the end of the placement, especially when engaging in placement report writing.  However, there will be fair chunks of time where it probably isn’t – or rather where there will be ‘dilute learning’ or where the learning is ‘spread out’.   So perhaps it is best to craft an argument that links points to hours of quality learning rather than hours in the workplace.  The later will allow for the longer placements needed for a better overall learning experience for the students, whilst the former is too restrictive and assumes that learning always occurs.

kz

Dr Karsten Zegwaard The University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand

Simulations may achieve the positive impacts and learner motivation of real-world learning

Contextual dichotomy has been found to negatively impact and adversely affect learning. Situated in real-world contexts, on the other hand, has been found to positively impact learning and learner motivation reports Lunce (2006: 37). Although the article referenced below reports on research about simulations in classroom contexts, it contains important pointers that may apply to distance education.

Educational simulations are based on internal model of a real-world systems or phenomena. In order to facilitate learning certain elements, however, may have been simplified or omitted. Lunce (2006: 37) identifies three general types of models on which educational simulations are built:

• Continuous models which are constructed using calculus in order to represent systems with infinite numbers of states.
• Discrete models employing statistics and queuing theory to represent systems with quantitatively discrete states.
• Logical models making use of sets of heuristics, implemented through a high-level computer programming language.

The latter (logical models) are most often used in educational simulations; whereas continuous and discrete models are most often found in scientific and engineering simulations, says Lunce (2006: 37) who groups (p. 38) educational simulations into four categories:

• Physical simulations allow the learner to manipulate variables in an open-ended scenario and observe the results, for example weather patterns in which the student can manipulate certain parameters and observe the outcome.
• Iterative simulations allow for focussing on discovery learning not readily observable in real-time, for example, phenomena from biology, geology or economics; by providing the student with opportunities to conduct scientific research, build and test hypothesis and observe the results.
• Procedural simulations give students the opportunity to manipulate simulated objects with the goal of mastering the skills required to correctly and accurately manipulate physical objects in a real-world setting with the goal of preparing the student for working in a real-world setting.
• Situational simulations model for example human behaviour as a vehicle to allow students to explore different options and decision paths. Situational simulations often employ role playing and are usually designed to be run several times with each participant playing different roles in various iterations. Situational simulations tend to be the most difficult to design due to the open-ended design and complexity of modelling human behaviour and attitudes of individuals or groups in different settings.

The notion fidelity of simulation refers to the extent of accuracy with which the simulation models the real-world system or phenomena. It further refers to the realism of learner interaction facilitated by the simulation as well as the type and frequency of feedback provided. “A well designed simulation can maintain a high degree of fidelity while abstracting or omitting distracting elements that would otherwise be present in a real-world situation”, indicates Lunce (2006: 38).

Lunce L. M. 2006. Simulations: Bringing the benefits of situated learning to the traditional classroom. Journal of Applied Educational Technology, 3(1), 37-45, Spring/Summer, 2006. Accessed via Internet on 18 May 2012 from: http://www.eduquery.com/jaet/JAET3-1_Lunce.pdf.

Distance education through sophisticated online format may be a global trend

Like many other, the library profession has evolved from an apprenticeship or vocational training to a fully fledged academic discipline coupled with practical training. The library practicum is field-based, supervised, and a professional learning experience taking place within a library—exposing students to a variety of tasks and learning experiences of a range of library operations. Since the beginning of the present century the mode of library and information science education has undergone change.

While distance education is perhaps the most suitable and effective medium for library and information science education in developed countries; it is not necessary the case in developing countries. In countries like Pakistan, the electronic infrastructure situation is not yet adequate for shifting to online teaching. Of particular importance to note is that although two distance library and information science programmes exists in Pakistan students who are remotely located without appropriate information and communication technology (ICT) facilities cannot much use of these programmes. Traditional modes of delivery are therefore prevailing. Furthermore, because libraries in the developing countries tend also to be traditional, content such as classification, cataloguing, traditional reference service, and library management still dominate the curriculum.

Malik, A. & Ameen, K. 2010. Effectiveness of library practicum: perceptions of LIS graduates in Pakistan. Library Review, 59(8), 573-584. Accessed online from Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Experiential training in distance education for socially vulnerable persons

Combating poverty and social exclusion calls for more flexible forms of training and skills development of vulnerable groups such as lone parents. The European Community defines lone parent families as those in which under aged children grow up with one parent. The absence of the other parent could be due to for example death, divorce, neglect, or casual absence.

When devising effective education or training programs for lone parents the barriers confronting these individuals must be considered and measures developed to overcome them. Primary barriers are low self-esteem; diminished personal quest due to unpleasant circumstances; lacking information and desire to enrol for training; limited accessibility due to family commitments; inadequate training methods, techniques and principles appropriate to their circumstances; and vague relevance of programme content to their needs, interests and characteristics. International adult education literature the personal experiences of adults must inform the design of learning opportunities and that continuing adult education more efficient when a hybrid or blended education approach is offered. In addition to class room teaching/training the following methods are encouraged: distance education; experiential learning; learning by doing; self-learning; collaborative learning; and adaptive learning.

Emphasis on the notion that people are not mere receivers of new knowledge and experiences, disharmony is used as a driving force for learning. Past lived experiences and current perspectives of social reality is contrasted with what potentially could be. Out of this interpretation of disjuncture learning can be derived. Experiential learning principles and student-centered techniques, such as brainstorming, role-playing, simulations, group exercises and case studies provide socially vulnerable persons to draw from previous experiences and knowledge, and to share these with members of the rest of the group in order to find solutions to problems.

Distance education, through Internet and personal computer, enable lone parents to engage in educational programmes. Technology allows chatting with one or more participants, through text, sound and even video. Web casted scenarios in the form of case studies or role plays enable participants to develop capabilities through analysis and reflection.

Papadakis, S; Fragoulis, L & Phillips, N. 2008. Supporting lone parents: experiential training techniques in distance education. Development and Learning in Organizations, 22 (5), 9-11. Electronically accessed from Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1477-7282.

Drafting experiential education procedures for a university

Those who have been involved in a policy and/or procedure creation process at a university will know it is not an easy task. Substantial literature reviews (which I blogged about during the recent past) that informed a first draft had been undertaken. This draft (Download Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning) has been distributed by e-mail to key role players within the university for critique and comment. The commentary received has been incorporated and a second draft made institutionally available on Intranet and called for commentary through the university's daily e-news mail (Download 2nd Draft of Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning).

At this point a meeting with a senior educational-support line manager resulted in further review and supplementation. A third draft -- Download 3rd Draft of Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning has been produced, which served as discussion document with several key stakeholders. Following thorough consultation and incorporation of input, contributions, commentary, critique and recommended structural changes the process has since arrived at a sixth draft -- Download 6th draft towards a Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning. The sixth draft got formally tabled at a committee within the structure and accepted in principle - subject to a few changes. This new version (Download Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning DRAFT 2-1 - apologies for the hyperlinks to Intranet pages that readers would not have access to) is now the official 2nd draft, for which a powerpoint presentation (Download Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning) had been prepared in order to present it at a next level internal committee.

Ultimately a Procedural Manual for Experiential Learning had been presented to Senate 13 June 2012 and approved, whereafter it was placed on Intranet with the University Council approved Policy for Experiential Learning.

Three modes of experiential education

The Best Practices for Legal Education (2007) publication of the Clinical Legal Education Association (CLEA) represents the fruit of 25 years of rich dialogue among American law teachers, lawyers, and judges, regarding the education of lawyers. In the foreword is stated that the American Bar Association convened a 1984 conference ‘Legal Education and the Profession: Approaching the 21st Century’. The foreword further states that in 1987 Justice Rosalie Wahl of the Minnesota Supreme Court and Chair of the ABA Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar rhetorically asked:

Have we really tried in law school to determine what skills, what attitudes, what character traits, what quality of mind are required of lawyers? Are we adequately educating students through the content and methodology of our present law school curriculums to perform effectively as lawyers after graduation?

The purpose of this elaborate prologue is to convey the credible nature of the three modes of experiential education identified in Chapter 5: Best Practices for Experiential Courses (pp 121 – 152, note that the page numbers of individual online chapters differ from the full publication) of the CLEA Best Practices for Legal Education (2007: 122), namely:

• In-house law clinics offering students opportunities to represent clients or perform other professional roles under the supervision of members of the faculty
• Externships — where students represent clients or perform other professional roles under the supervision of practicing lawyers or they observe or assist practicing lawyers or judges in their work
• Simulation-based courses granting students hypothetical situations to assume professional roles and perform law-related tasks

These three modes, although many different terms are used, are common in many disciplines, for example:

• Practicals, laboratory work, applied field experiences facilitated and managed by lecturers
• Work-integrated/experiential/work-based learning in the occupational field under supervision of an experienced practitioner
• Simulated learning providing experience in hypothetical situations

Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998: 244) address externships as a means for law students to obtain a credit “working in legal settings”. It is interesting to note that “in the United States, students may not receive financial compensation for work which warrants educational credit”. Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998) identify both advantages and disadvantages with regard to externships. Potential advantages include “lower costs, variety of opportunities, work experience, service to the community, and flexibility”. As far as disadvantages are concerned, the main one identified is the potential “lack of control over the quality of the educational experience”.

Brayne, H; Duncan, N & Grimes, R. 1998. Clinical legal education: active learning in your law school. London: Blackstone.

Stuckey, R & Others. 2007. Best Practices for Legal Education. United States: Clinical Legal Education Association. Retrieved 2 November 2011 from: http://www.cleaweb.org/best-practices -- note the hyperlink to the best practices blog at the bottom of the web page.

Doing law as means to learning about law

In the developed, technocratic world people—especially younger generations—became accustomed to virtual realities on PC screens. Interactive PC games offer excitement, insight and fulfilment. Clinical simulations could offer similar stimulus, engagement observation how law works. Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998: 173) state aptly “doing law as means to learning about law is different from learning the law by reading it”. Reconstruction of legal incidents through the vehicle of simulations; and the presentation of social problems as law ‘cases’; are but two examples. A legal problem on paper does not contain the uncertainties, emotions and interactions that form part of the real-world realities of, for example, the attorney’s office, the police station or the courtroom.

Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998: 174) observes that “simulation is commonly regarded as a valuable part of clinical teaching, but one which is the poor relation of the real-client clinic”, because simulation lacks the “startling and awakening encounters … of coping with people” present in legal practice “who have a need of legal expertise”. On the other hand, simulations can provide opportunities not readily available and can invoke the emotions and flow of adrenalin associated with daily client work.

In undergraduate legal education, simulations would inculcate appropriate behaviours in addition to the realisation that there is more to lawyering than mastery of legal knowledge. Simulations further offer students safe opportunities to experiment and to learn from mistakes.

Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998: 183) emphasise that simulation can never be an alternative to real client work, but within a spectrum of teaching methods simulations could contribute to effective law learning.

Brayne, H; Duncan, N & Grimes, R. 1998. Clinical legal education: active learning in your law school. London: Blackstone.

Simulations are interactive abstractions of real-life

Akilli (2007: 4) defines a simulation “as an interactive abstraction or simplification of some real life … or any attempt to imitate a real or imaginary environment or system”.

Although a substantial body of literature accumulated about simulations, Akilli (2007: 5) observes that it is still vague if games and/or simulations influence the learning of students in a positive way. Some literature does, however, describe the effects on:

• Discovery learning strategies
• Problem solving skills
• Computer usage skills
• Intellectual, visual and motor skills of students
• The engagement and interactivity of students
• Motivation to take responsibility for own learning

Evidence suggests, according to Akilli (2007: 6) “the use of games as instructional tools” in 3000 B.C. in China. Despite re-entry of use in the educational context in 1950s; games and simulations only became part of formal instructional design in the 1970s. However, it is reported that instructional designers encounter two problems:

• Absence of available comprehensive design paradigms — addressed through the publication referenced
• Lack of well-designed research findings — existing are mainly perceived reactions of students

Akilli, GK. 2007. Games and simulations: a new approach in education? In D Gibson; C Aldrich & M Prensky. 2007. Games and simulations in online learning: research and development frameworks (pp 1 – 20). Hershey: Information Science Publishing.

Simulations will result in educational benefits if their design

If the design of simulations is excellent and along multiple dimensions they will result in being educationally beneficial, is stated in the forword of Gibson, Aldrich and Prensky (2007). Furthermore is stated that:

• Simulations have the potential to dramatically improve the motivation of students if design-based research is used. The educational outcomes would further be dramatically improved, as well as new insights generated about the nature of learning.
• However, proponents of interactive media must recognise some learning derived from research about several types of learning experiences.
• People vary with regard to learning styles and strengths; and what engages them—educational designs therefore vary in success for different people.
• The motivation of some simulation participants will improve as result of the element of competition, whereas the motivation of others will diminish.
• Simulation designs must be carefully balanced between authenticity and validity to the real world in order to be effective; because reality is complex but oversimplification introduces misconceptions—the latter may reduce deep learning potential.

Gibson, D; Aldrich, C & Prensky M. 2007. Games and simulations in online learning: research and development frameworks. Hershey: Information Science Publishing.

Tactical-decisions and social-system simulations

Higher education graduates often acquired little more than textbook problem abilities. Although theory taught is sometimes followed by some clinic, workshop, laboratory, practicum, field experience, clinical/workplace experience, or internship; students often lack the opportunity to develop their own cognitive and systematic problem-solving ability. Furthermore, the different situations individual students are exposed to often vary substantially in complexity and difficulty, resulting in the development of varied abilities. Gredler (1992) suggests that tactical-decision simulations can alleviate this shortcoming in problem-solving ability. Such simulations entail a situation that require of participants to make independent decisions in a dynamic environment. Tactical-decision simulations involve data-interpretation and management decision-making. Gredler (1992) presents three kinds:

• Diagnostic simulations help develop the ability to solve complex evolving problems, which is a requirement of several career-paths and walks of life. Two sub-types are common, namely professional-client/patient situations and solve-the-mystery challenges.
• Crisis-management simulations in the form of a scenario that requires appropriate intervention. Different participants fulfil different roles in seeking a solution to avert or minimise an impending threat or danger, which escalates and become more acute as time passes.
• Data-management simulations entail the manipulation of quantifiable variables, such as financial. In contemporarily society the ability to manage data and make trade-offs in order to thrive (and survive) is a given. Two simulation formats exists, namely closed-structure for individual roles to manage data and open-structure for team-collaboration. Simulation-design issues typically include the relevant mathematical model and identification of the key decisions required from participants.

Gredler (1992) further suggests social-process-simulations which require of participants to focus on interactions among people. The beliefs, assumptions, and goals of individual participants and significant others may hinder or assist. Social-process-simulations also include three kinds:

• Social-system simulations include the integrate fabric of inter-relations of groups further complicated by different cultures, religions and personalities. Decision-making that involves the interaction among people is of particular importance.
• Language-skills and communication is crucial to social-processes. Simulations are powerful ways of mastering language, including written and verbal communication.
• Empathy and insight simulations enact typical fast pace and competing demand realities of life, which are not conducive to demonstrating sensitivity and empathy. The aim of these simulations is for participants to acquire insight in the feelings of other and to demonstrate empathy.

Gredler, M. 1992. Designing and evaluating games and simulations, a process approach. London: Kogan Page.

Modes of interactive events; real-life and ambivalence

Jones (1995: 16-17) postulates that academics mostly regard ‘real life’ to mean realities outside simulations. However, he differentiates four kinds of ‘real life’, namely:

1. Reference points pertain to customary, legal, and ordinary that gives simulations a common code of conduct — Jones gives the example of meetings usually voting on an amendment, before voting on the motion itself.
2. Consequences of real life imply the long-term repercussions, ethics, environmental impact, etc.
3. Mimicry belongs on stage or in movies, but is not appropriate in a simulation — participants should during debriefing be capable to substantiate their behaviour exhibited during.
4. Intrusions are prevalent of real life and take many forms; intrusions may be constructive and/or disruptive — it is not advisable that facilitators intrude in a simulation, because inevitably the facilitator ends up being blamed by participants

In addition to real life, Jones (1995) differentiates simulations, role plays, games and exercises as various modes of interactive methodologies. He also adds ambivalence:

Ambivalent/ce originate from Latin ‘ambi’ meaning ‘both’ & ‘valentia’ meaning ‘strength’ or ‘valere’ meaning ‘be strong’ — it is the simultaneous/coexisting conflicting/opposing/contradictory feelings/ attitudes/view points, such as attraction and repulsion. Jones (1995: 19) uses the term ambivalence for an interactive event that is incompatible and entail conflicting methodologies, which may cause considerable harm—both personally and interpersonally—and are best avoided.

Jones, K. 1995. Simulations, a handbook for teachers and trainers. 3^rd edition. London: Kogan Page.

Virtual simulations to replicate tabletop exercises

Offering “online students the same realistic training experience traditionally provided by an in-person tabletop exercise” say Anne M. Hewitt, Susan Spencer, Danielle Mirliss, and Riad Twal (2009). They caution, however, that technology access and student support must be addressed prior to the successful implementation of virtual world simulations.

A tabletop exercise is a simulated scenario designed to test the response capability, for example an emergency evacuation or health-threatening pandemic. Tabletop exercises are used extensively “to practice response to and recovery from a wide range of incidents” where participants need coordinate in real time to formulate comprehensive response strategies of multiple agencies.

Hewitt, Spencer, Mirliss, and Twal (2009) established a number of goals for their virtual version of the tabletop, namely:

• offer a real world activity for students,
• permit synchronous collaboration among students on campus and from various geographical locations,
• apply basic course concepts in a problem-based learning format, and
• introduce complex systems in a systematic way.

With the goals in mind, they explored available alternatives for virtual simulations and found many readily available emergency preparedness training platforms. However, several either did not allow for customisation or required technical capabilities exceeding institutional capacity. Hewitt, Spencer, Mirliss, and Twal (2009) determined that Play2Train was the most promising option to conduct training in Second Life. John Lester, academic program manager at Linden Labs, states that "Second Life gives both students and faculty a new medium for exploring things like distance learning, experiential learning, simulation, and scientific visualization in a fundamentally collaborative environment"

Hewitt, AM; Spencer, S; Mirliss, D & Twal, R. 2009. Preparing Graduate Students for Virtual World Simulations: Exploring the Potential of an Emerging Technology. Innovate—a former official journal of online education of the Nova Southeastern University's Fischler School of Education and Human Services (FSEHS), Volume 5 (final), Issue 6, August/September 2009. Retrieved electronically 23 Oct 2011 from: http://innovateonline.info/pdf/vol5_issue6/Preparing_Graduate_Students_for_Virtual_World_Simulations-__Exploring_the_Potential_of_an_Emerging_Technology.pdf

The experience of learning from a live person

The words of the post title is taken from the first line of page 277 of 'Poser, my life in twenty-three yoga poses'. Claire Dederer (2011), in my opinion, captured here what true learning-in-experience is about.

A colleague asked me today about terms in use for various kinds of learning from real-life experiences. People assign meaning to terms they embrace or they use terms as vessels to convey meaning they assign. Terms get politised. Terms belong to certain followings or communities of practice (I've used used such).

Imagine the medieval guilds. A master teaching apprentices.

Claire got an assignment to write a piece for The New York Times on the way the Naropa University 'integrated contemplative practice into its coursework' (p. 266). The PR office of the university arranged that she spent a week visiting classes experiencing. Claire took up yoga and meditation several years before. Her experiences at Naropa, however, made a deep impression on her. Synchronistically she enrolled for a beginning class at the Yoga Workshop by the ashtanga yoga master Richard Freeman. Claire watched him performing the jump-through and got so inspired she believed deep in her heart that she can do it (p. 276) and remark: "Yoga is the closest thing many of us will ever encounter to a pure oral tradition. No substitutions, so far, have even come close to approximating the experience of learning from a live person. As I discovered early in my practice, learning from a video doesn't quite work, nor does a book ..."

If a learning enviroment can be created to let students experience this kind of grasp and mastery, then true cooperative & work-integrated education (or whatever terminology is prefered) takes place. In Claire Dederer's words (277) "Many writers have talked about the mystery of transmission. ... Maybe it's simply seeing the [yoga] poses done in three dimensions. But it feels like something more than that. When your teacher [mentor/workplace supervisor] shows you how something is done, there is a feeling of possibility, a transmittal of something like faith. Yes, this can be done [or, oh that is how it is done correctly]. I'm seeing it right before my eyes."

 
Dederer, C. 2011. Poser, my life in twenty-three yoga poses. London: Bloomsbury.

Semester in-industry learning industry affiliates model

The semester-in-industry model is, according to Edwards (2007) a characteristic of the Australian undergraduate engineering work-integrated learning industry affiliates program. Engineers Australia, the Australian engineering accrediting body, advocates that a key differentiating element of a professional engineering degree from an applied science degree is exposure through work-practice. The industry affiliates program entail students work on a joint industry-university supervised project during the first semester of the final year. Edwards (2007) summarizes the roles and responsibilities of the three partners to the industry affiliates program as follow:

• The industry partner provides the resources for the project; technical supervision for the student; and a suitable workplace for the student similar to that provided for commencing engineers. Industry partners are not expected to pay students.
• The aim is to integrate the student into the professional culture of organization. The student manages the project and adheres to the dress and attendance standards of the industry partner.
• The university selects suitable projects (in consultation with industry partners); help match students to projects; and provides academic supervision of students by visiting student in industry placement to ensure the meeting of requirements.

 The schedule of a typical industry affiliates program model is as follow (Edwards 2007):

October (of year before)	Briefing of students and preparation of CVs
November	List of project topics released and student apply
December to January	Students interviewed and selected for projects
February	Pre-industry workshops; agreements signed between industry partner and student; and student prepares project milestones
February to June	Industry experience by executing an assigned project and regular monitoring of project plan by industry and university
June	Exhibition of projects and submission of thesis

Work-integrated Learning (WiL) is a term used by many Australian universities and internationally to refer to activities that integrate the work (or industry) experience with formal studies. Edwards (2007) points out that it can take multiple forms, such as periods of work experience, internships, site visits, industry based projects, case studies using industry experience, having industry experts provide guest lectures, etc.

Edwards, D. 2007. Integrating Work Integrated Learning. Presented at the International Conference on Engineering Education – ICEE 2007, September 3 – 7, Coimbra, Portugal. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://www.ineer.org/Events/ICEE2007/papers/226.pdf   

Workplace learning is learning-work

How is experiential learning structured for life in beta? In fast-paced realities the luxury of going into design-mode, to develop something, may not be feasible because the problem may have changed whilst not looking.

Simple work is outsourced and even complicated work automated. Holding onto best practices may result in falling behind. Emerging practices for continual changes requires knowledge-sharing. Complexity is often the order of the day, requiring problems-solving and continuous learning by probing. Learning is work.

The workplace learning part of educational programmes, I believe, should therefore be focussed on identification and solving of real-problems by applying knowledge gained from theoretical study and by making use of social-media to pool the expertise of others. Structured learning should entail the identification of a real complex problem in conjunction with a workplace mentor, not mundane recording of time spent in a logbook. Structured learning need not imply predetermined exposure and collection of a portfolio of evidence in this regard.