Learning in vivo

Add value through partnerships between HEI and organisations

In order to harness mutual advantages, a need for more creative ways of interacting between organisations and higher education institutions (HEIs) is advocated (Barnes & Phillips 2000). Reduced state funding and increased student numbers place HEIs under strain, especially with regard to staff time. The development of working links with organisations is considered essential to ‘unlock’ professional development of staff, research opportunities and community-service scholarly activity. Partnerships may offer academics the opportunity to access new sources of finance (value for money) and in-kind support for project work, research and other scholarly initiatives. In addition collaboration with voluntary-activity groups offers avenues of opportunity for responsible HEIs.

In practical terms it means that partnerships should be complimentary and result in synergy, which would harness academic interests and add value for the community. HEI involvement in projects proposals/bids could contribute academic rigour. Collaboration with community groupings may result in voluntary input in research and acquisition of local information that is not generally available, as well as local expertise and data. Joint publishing could be mutually beneficial with regard to promoting respective objectives, raising the profile of academics and HEI access to data sets.

Collaboration may involve promoting career advancement of ‘under-employed’ minority groups through tailor-made programmes drawing from HEI counselling and guidance expertise and real-life learning in organisations. Collaboration may result in major cost-savings for organisations and a ‘ripple-effect’ in that other organisations learn about the benefits. HEIs are by definition centres of knowledge and expertise, which are constantly evolving, and which could be applied to the benefit of organisations. Collaborations may further result in jointly winning awards for achievements. Relationships may offer scope for future capacity building.

HEIs' reaching out to organisations, is vital for establishing Cooperative and Work-integrated Education (CWIE) partnership, but also an important step in order to discover other potential areas of mutual benefit.

Barnes, N. J. & Phillips P. S. 2000. Higher education partnerships: creating new value in the environmental sector. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 1 (2): 181-190.

Call for more dialogue between universities and employers

Given the context of the dire need to improve education and to increase job opportunities for youth the, Catherine Wijnberg (2013)—the director and founder of Fetola, urges that the starting point is to collaborate—“to work together”. She specifies two prerequisites:

1. For educational institutions to engage in more dialogue with their ultimate clients, the employers.
2. For graduates to better match the needs of business.

The Accreditation Council for Cooperative Education (ACCE), established in 1998—emphasises employer involvement as an important attribute. Sandra Kerka (1999, p. 3) advocates more than dialogue between, but that partnerships should be grown into supportive relationships where “employer support does not have to be repeatedly obtained and there are clearly understood long-term expectations”. A notion reiterated by Reuss (2001) who declares partnerships are a key component to success. Orrell (2004) differentiates between the typical cottage industry and new managed culture within a community of practice. The latter characterised by partnerships among for example, employers, academia, students, higher education managers, professional bodies and placement agencies or careers offices. She emphasises that continued success is dependent upon recognition of all the involved parties; dependent upon clear agreements between parties; and attainment of explicit mutual benefits for all. She also cautions that if the benefits fail for any one party the overall partnership effectiveness is compromised. Thelme Janse van Rensburg (2012: 25) emphasises networking, and in particular the pursuing of online communication. The metaphor of rhizomatous propagation further serves as inspiration in this regard.

Accreditation Council for Cooperative Education. n.d. College and university program attributes. Retrieved May 6, 2013 from http://www.co-opaccreditation.org/attributes.htm

Janse van Rensburg, T. 2012. Revitalise your business. Professional Beauty, September 2012, 25-28.

Kerka, S. 1999. New directions for cooperative education. Eric Clearinghouse on adult career and vocational education, Columbus, OH. Eric Digest No 209. Retrieved April 25, 2002 from http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed434245.html

Orrell, J. 2004. Work-integrated learning programmes: Management and educational quality. In the proceedings of the Australian Universities Quality Forum 2004. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from
https://tls.vu.edu.au/vucollege/LiWC/resources/Orrell.pdf

Reuss, P.B. 2001. Students reap the benefits from faculty-employer connection. Journal of Career Planning & Employment, 61(3), 37-39.

Wijnberg, C. 2013. Small business finds Setas wanting [Download Small_business_finds_Setas_wanting_Catherine_Wijnberg_MG_3-9May]. Education column. Mail & Guardian, 3 to 9 May 2013, 36.

The ‘UFOs’ of discretionary grants for work-integrated learning

OFO is not an obscure/unidentified flying object. OFO Code appears repeatedly in the templates for mandatory and discretionary grant funding for skills development, contained in Annexure 2 (public) and 3 (private) of the SETA Grant Regulations. In order to access funding for enabling work-integrated learning (WIL) a legal person must complete and submit a PIVOTAL training plan and report as, per sections E & F (pp. 22-23) or sections G & H (pp. 30-31) respectively, and as per published timeframes to the relevant SETA/s.

OFO stand for Organising Framework for Occupations <Download OFO Version 2013>. It is stated in the OFO Guidelines (DHET 2013: 4) that it is in essence a coded occupational classification system and a key tool of the Department of Higher Education and Training for identifying, reporting and monitoring skills demand and supply in the South African labour market. It is therefore important for academics at higher education institutions to be capable to make use of the OFO.

The 2013 OFO has been in the making since 2004. The classification units are jobs (occupations on the OFO). The classification variable is the nature of work done (tasks and duties). The identification classifications criteria include two dimensions of skill, i.e. skill level and skill specialisation. The following definitions (DHET 2013: 6-7) apply:

• A job is a set of tasks and duties carried out or meant to be carried out, by one person for a particular employer, including self-employment.
• An occupation is a set of jobs whose main tasks and duties are characterised by a high degree of similarity (skill specialisation).
• Skill is defined as the ability to carry out the tasks and duties of a given job.
• Skill level is defined as a function of the complexity and range of tasks and duties to be performed in an occupation. Skill level [four] is measured operationally by considering the nature (e.g. complexity and range) of the work performed and/or level of formal education and/or amount of informal on-the-job training (including experience needed).
• Skill specialisation is considered in terms of four conceptual concepts, namely the field of knowledge required; the tools and machinery used; the materials worked on or with; and the kinds of goods and services produced.

The OFO structure involves grouping of occupations into eight (8) Major groups—single (1) digit, Sub-Major—two (2) digits, Minor—three (3) digits, Unit—four (4) digits, and occupations—six (6) digits. Higher education is concerned with the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) levels 5 to 10, which equate to the upper-part of the OFO skill-level 2 through to 4. The top three major groups of the OFO therefore relate to the skills development contribution of higher education, namely (1) Managers, (2) Professionals, and (3) Technicians and Associate Professionals. Some undergraduate qualifications may further relate to higher education’s skills development contribution towards the next four major groups of the OFO, namely (4) Clerical Support Workers; (5) Service and Sales Workers; (6) Skilled Agricultural, Forestry, Fishery, Craft and Related Trades Workers; and (7) Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers. In order to enable the access of discretionary grants for the work-integrated learning PIVOTAL programmes, a working knowledge of the OFO—in particular identification of the relevant OFO Codes—is therefore important.

The Classification of Education Subject Matter (CESM) of the DHET is structurally similar to the OFO. The CESM (DHET 2008: 1) is not concerned with academic programmes; instead CESM confines itself to the various knowledge components (courses or often called modules) which appear within such academic programmes. CESM comprises 20 Educational Fields—denoted by two (2) digits “first order designations[, which] are intended to be representative of major categories for classifying knowledge.” Each field is subdivided into a number of sub-fields (a total of 239 denoted by four digits) and each subdivided into subjects (denoted by six digits). “Second order and third order categories are considered to be natural subdivisions of the major subject matter areas. The hierarchy level of a specific area of study should not be seen as a judgement of the relative importance of that area of study in the South African higher education system.” (DHET 2008: 4) The reason for CEMS is that universities tend to use both unique titles for their offerings and have unique academic management structures. In order to ensure uniformity of annual data returns the Higher Education Management Information System (HEMIS). For the Unit—four (4) digits of the OFO, the most appropriate CESM codes were linked—at two (2) digits (where the overlap is too big) or four (4) digits—refer to DHET (2013: 17). This is of particular importance for career guidance purposes.

New green occupations (reflected as “scarce skills”) were added to the 2013 OFO version to support the “initiatives of reducing negative environmental impact and contribute sustainably to environmental, economical and social sensitive enterprises and economies” DHET (2013: 14). Provision had further been made for new skill sets (reflected as “critical skills”) in existing occupations in order to support initiatives. A total of 96 occupations are considered green and identified with a green-earth symbol on the OFO. A further “51 occupations and 17 specialisations were identified as requiring “Critical Green Skills” and can be recognised” by a two-green-circular-arrows symbol on the OFO (DHET 2013: 15).

Republic of South Africa. 2008. Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). Classification of Education Subject Matter (CESM) August 2008. <Download CESM classification of educational subject matter> Electronically accessible from: http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=5PLnoxrqLLU%3D&tabid=95&mid=507

Republic of South Africa. 2013. Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). Guidelines: Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) 2013. <Download OFO Guideline - 2013> Electronically accessible from: http://www.dhet.gov.za/Documents/Publications/tabid/93/Default.aspx

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Skills Development Act (97/1998). The Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) grant regulations regarding monies received by a SETA and related matters. Government Gazette Vol. 570; Regulation Gazette No 9867; Government Notice No R990; Gazette No 35940; 3 December 2012. The Government Printing Works. Electronically accessed from http://www.info.gov.za/view/DynamicAction?pageid=623&myID=361326

Regulations about Skills Development Funds received and spending

On 1 April 2013 new regulations (RSA 2012) about monies received by Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs); mandatory and discretionary grants; proportion of administration costs; discouraging accumulation of surpluses; and related came into effect. Simultaneously the previous grant regulations were repealed, namely Government Notice No R713 in Government Gazette No 27801 of 18 July 2005 and Government Notice No R88 in Government Gazette No 29584 of 2 February 2007.

Of particular importance to higher education programmes that contains work-integrated learning in the curriculum is §6 (pp. 11-13), “allocation of discretionary grants by a SETA”:

• §6(12)—“at least 80% of discretionary grant funding must be allocated to PIVOTAL programmes”, which are defined (p. 5) as an acronym meaning “professional, vocational, technical and academic learning programmes that result in qualifications or part qualifications on the National Qualifications Framework …” [also §3(6)]
• §6(11)—addressing scarce and critical skills through programmes designed to address such, which include work-integrated learning must be the key focus of SETAs. Work-integrated learning is defined (p. 6) as an umbrella term for curricular, pedagogic and assessment practices; integrating formal learning and workplace concerns; culminating in a qualification or part thereof; and may include practicums, professional practice, internships, workplace experience, industry-based learning, cooperative education, service learning, real work learning, placements, experiential learning, and clinical placements
• §6(14)—obtaining the funding above is subject to a legal person completing and submitting a PIVOTAL training plan and report as per annexure 2 (private), sections E & F (pp. 22-23) or (public), sections G & H (pp. 30-31). A legal person [§6(10), p. 12] includes public education and training institutions; an employer or enterprise that falls within the jurisdiction of a SETA, but includes those not required to pay the skills levy; and other such as NGOs [refer to §6(7), p. 12].
• §6(15)—however, employers with less than 50 employees will not have to submit the PIVOTAL training plan and report indicated above, “but will be asked to provide information on participation in PIVOTAL programmes and the impact of these”. SETAs will develop suitable templates for small and micro enterprises.
• Note, however, §7 specifies that the “SETA criteria for grants must be approved by the SETA Accounting Authority before funds are allocated”; and §8 that each SETA is required to prepare and distribute a schedule indicating the dates by which applications for grants must be submitted and the timeframes for disbursements [also §3(7)].
• §6(1-2 & 4-5)—each SETA must develop a Sector Skills Plan (SSP) in accordance to the National Skills Development Strategy and strategic goals; and each SETA must annually approve a Discretionary Grants Policy, developed in accordance to the issued DHET guidelines; which will determine and specify its discretionary grants allocation to meet the sector’s needs through different delivery models and project types that will be deployed.
• §6(3)—each SETA’s Annual Performance Plan (APP) clarifies how discretionary grants are allocated to prioritise skills development of the sector through public education and training institutions.
• §6(9)—the Discretionary Grants Policy of each SETA must “indicate the purpose of the various grants, funding frameworks and projects …”; and give the communication procedures, which must embrace the “principles of transparency, opened, access and fairness” [§6(8)].

The remainder of the regulations deal with (§1) definitions; (§2) specifying the limitations on administrative costs of SETAs; (§3) the compliance of SETA finances and financial management; (§4) the allocation of mandatory grants, and (§5) the payment mandatory grants to levy paying employers; (§9) the payment of services rendered by SETAs; (§10) the repeal of previously published regulations; and (§11) finally the short tile and commencement of the regulations.

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Skills Development Act (97/1998). The Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) grant regulations regarding monies received by a SETA and related matters. Government Gazette Vol. 570; Regulation Gazette No 9867; Government Notice No R990; Gazette No 35940; 3 December 2012. The Government Printing Works.

Gazetted Terminology for Professional Nurse and Midwife Education and Training

The terminology for cooperative and work-integrated education within the South African nursing education and training sphere is worth noting. It is gazetted that the Minister of Health, after consultation of the South African Nursing Council (SANC)—a statutory body—in accordance to §58(1)(f) of the Nursing Act (Act No 33 of 1995); made regulations pertaining to the education and training of professional nurses and midwives.

Of specific interest are the definitions of:

• Clinical accompaniment, which “means a structured process by a nurse education institution to facilitate assistance and support to the learner by the nurse educator at the clinical facility to ensure the achievement of the programme outcomes;”
• Clinical facility, which “means a continuum of services to promote health and provide care to individuals and groups, used to teach learners;”
• Clinical learning opportunities, which “means the range of learning experiences available in a healthcare setting or other experiential learning sites for a learner to gain the required clinical skills;”
• Clinical placement, which “means the period spent by a learner in clinical and other experiential learning sites to ensure that the purpose of the programme is achieved;”
• Clinical supervision, which “means the assistance and support extended to the learner by the professional nurse or midwife at a clinical facility with an aim of developing a competent, independent practitioner;”

The gazetted regulations further includes several other definitions of terminology such as assessment / assessment method / integrated assessment / assessor / moderation / moderator; competence / learning outcomes / programme outcomes; comprehensive nursing; fundamental learning; programme / qualification; and recognition of prior learning. The regulations further deal with issues such as requirements for registration in the two said nursing categories; accreditation of education institutions; admission criteria; minimum programme requirements; clinical education and training; the assessment and moderation of learning outcomes; transfers; recognition of prior learning; application of these regulations, as well as transitional arrangements.

Nursing Act: Regulations: Approval of and minimum requirements for education and training of learners leading to registration in categories professional nurse and midwife, (G 36235, RG 9927, GoN 174), 8 March 2013

Causes of the effectiveness of internships

Surprise is expressed about the apparent absence of clear evidence about the impact of internships, considering the extensive use thereof in higher education generally and business schools in particular. Narayanan—from Drexel University; Olk and Fukami—the University of Denver (2010: 62) found that “literature on internship experiences is largely descriptive and anecdotal”. They summarised 22 published studies between 1984 and 2003 and presented the following major findings in alphabetical order of citations:

• A consistent pattern of adjustment experienced by interns namely expectation, frustration and accommodation.
• Students have to adopt new ways to learn when moving from the university to the workplace, as well as learning new genres.
• An increase in internship programs had been observed (1997), with most programs fairly young; for credit only; occur during junior years; paid rather than unpaid; and require a written project. Many programmes neither have full- or part-time coordinators, nor require on-site visits. The responsibility for identifying internship sites are often share between students and others.
• The experience from internships is related to higher levels of self-concept crystallization. However, experiences are not related to increased occupational information, self-efficacy, decidedness, vocational commitment, or tendency to foreclose. Three characteristics of internships, namely task variety, feedback, and opportunities for dealing with people; linked significantly to self-concept crystallisation and self-efficacy, plus increased occupational information.
• Greater emphasis is placed by students on meaningful experiences to acquire a competitive edge in job market; than on furthering education.
• Academic assignments—seven proposed—can enhance the educational value of business internships.
• Internships increased in popularity because real-world experience enhances the prospects of employability. Within a context of increasing cost of education there is pressure that education would ensure employment.
• The value of internships is perceived to largely provide social and people skills; with limited improved academic skills.
• Learning in the workplace differs from learning in the classroom (academically).
• The socialisation of internship is complex and individualistic; comprising three phases (a) getting in, (b) breaking in, and (c) settling in.
• The perspectives of the three main internship players—namely programme directors/coordinators, industrial supervisors/mentors, and students—differed almost entirely. It is believed that the credibility of internships as learning experience would be enhanced by systemic procedures and standards.
• A notable difference between the perspectives companies and students is that higher ratings are assigned by students.
• Those students that did an internship compared favourably with regard to college performance; jobs offers; and age upon graduation. A racial predisposition, but no gender difference, had been identified.
• In-class exercises to facilitate socialization were reviewed and procedures suggested to facilitate such exercises.
• As result of internship experiences, students changed self-perceptions, preferences, some instrumental values, as well as work-specific needs.
• The use of structured power internship programmes to recruit, track and give a ready supply of the best college-age talent is described.
• Reporting what students like most/least about their internship position.
• Internships considered the most effective approach, according to business students and corporations to college recruitment. Suggestions made how companies can effectively implement internships
• Some support is given for more crystallisation of vocational self-concept and work values; as well as strong support for better employment opportunities. The level of ‘autonomy’ is a moderated outcome variable. In a second study students with internships were rated significantly higher by college recruiters.
• Contains discussion of issues of socialization, acculturation, motivation of student as employees, and the education-workplace relationships.
• The need to align institutional study to what is actually happening in the workplace: expectations need to be agreed upon and clear requirements are necessary.
• The specifics of certain communities of practice are embedded within and therefore not fully teachable.

Narayanan, V.K.; Olk, P.M. & Fukami, C.V. 2010. Determinants of Internship Effectiveness: An Exploratory Model. Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 9, No. 1, 61–80.

Measuring effectiveness of work placements - an instrument

An evidence-based placement evaluation instrument has been developed through qualitative research by six members of Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia. They researched the views of placement stakeholders regarding what attributes of the placement experience should be evaluated. The qualitative data gathered had been thematically analysed and a 25 item evaluation instrument (see column on the right in the table below). The instrument—containing questions and illustrative quotes, in addition to the summary below—can be completed by students to evaluate and improve placement experiences and outcomes.

Determinant of meaning	Theme
Capability	Real world experience Knowledge gained Student skill Application of knowledge Communication skills Time management Project management Organizational functioning Confidence Personal development Assessment tasks
Cooperation and morality	Relationship building and management Networking Teamwork Ethics Organizational supervision University supervision
Cohesive/Coherent worldview	Clearer career path Student contribution
Unambiguous duties	Face-to-face coordination Pre‐placement assessments or training Clear and aligned expectations Pre‐placement preparation at the organization Feedback provided from university Feedback provided from organization

Sturre, V.; Keele, S.; Von Treuer, K.; Moss, S.; Mcleod, J. & Macfarlane, S . 2012. Construction of an instrument to measure effectiveness of placement settings and experiences. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 2012, 13(4), 225-238.

DHET Learning Programme Regulations, 2012

The South African government notice, referenced below, conveys the Minister of Higher Education and Training intention to repeal the Learnership Regulations (published in Government Notice R 519 in Government Gazette No 30010 dated 29 June 2007) and makes available Learning Programme Regulations—under the Skills Development Act, 1998 (Act No. 97 of 1998)—for public comment a 30 day period that ended 5 August 2012.

The notice defines a "learning programme agreement" to mean an agreement as intended in the regulations. The notice further specifies and defines, among others, the following:

• Candidacy—meaning “the practical and work experience training that is an occupational qualification as determined by the relevant professional body and follows the completion of an academic qualification required for access to the assessment for the issuing of a professional designation. This learning must lead to the issuing of a designation registered on the NQF” (emphasis added).
• Internship—meaning “the structured work experience component of an occupational qualification registered by the” Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) as contemplated in Section 26G of the Skills Development Act.
• Learner—meaning “the learning party to a learning programme agreement, who is enrolled in a registered learning programme that has a curriculum registered with QCTO and includes [the] Iearner contemplated in both section 18( 1) and section 18(2 )of the Act” (emphasis added).
• Learnership—meaning “a learning programme that leads to an occupational qualification or part qualification and includes an apprenticeship and cadetship”
• Placement—meaning “a learner is placed in a workplace to complete part of an internship”
• Structured learning component—includes both “the knowledge and practical curriculum components of an occupational qualification” and the structured work experience component "means the workplace curriculum components of an occupational qualification” (emphasis added).
• Successful completion—meaning that “the Iearner has successfully completed the learning programme and has been declared competent”.
• Termination—means “the cancellation or dissolution of a learning programme agreement before one or more of the components of the learning programme agreement have been successfully completed”.
• Work integrated learning—“means a process that formally integrates a student's academic qualification or part qualification with work experience in participating employer organisations” (emphasis added).

The definitions quoted above are in need of some editing, because the way they are currently stated excludes—probably unintentionally—certain types, for example, the definition of a learner by implication excludes higher education qualifications.[The Directorate: SETA Support and Learnerships of the South African national Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) advised that the regulations are not finalized yet, the staff are still busy with the consolidation of public comments. As soon as the revised regulations are approved by the Minister, theywill then be publish in a gazette and also on the DHET website.]

Chapter 2 deals with the registration and management of learning programme agreements; chapter 3 with disputes; and chapter 4 with administrative provisions. Annexure A1 (pp. 12-20) reflects the full Learning Programme Agreement (excluding Skills Programmes) and annexure A2 the agreement for skills programmes.

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Department of Higher Education and Training. Government Gazette, Skills Development Act: Regulations: Learning Programme: Draft, (G 35489, General Notice 545), 5 July. Electronically available from http://www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=169917 and/or http://www.dhet.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=RY4DaZ62eQU%3d&tabid=346&mid=1415

E-portfolios and assessment via mobile technologies

The South African Council for Higher Education (CHE) imperatives with regard to programme (qualification) accreditation include, among others:

• That the programme must bring about an understanding within students about the specifics of the occupation for which they are being trained.
• That the students should master the techniques and skills required for a specific profession or occupation.
• And where feasible that work-based learning and placement in a work-based environment should form an integral part of the curriculum.

The CHE imperatives with regard to work-integrated learning further include (1) a mentoring system that enables the student to recognise her/his strengths and weaknesses in his/her work, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices; as well as (2) regular and systematic monitoring. Mobile devices may well enable both these.

However, Coulby, Laxton, Boomer and Davies (2011) caution that without a sound pedagogical rationale for the use of mobile devices; technical and infrastructural realities may very possibly reduce student engagement.

Higher educational health and social care curricula often comprise a blend of classroom instruction (in residential education); simulations and work-based placement/s. The latter provide for learning opportunities and the assessment of competencies and professional attributes that cannot be cannot be replicated in the former two. The authentic nature of work-based placement/s enables holistic preparation; preparing graduates for professional practice, including the culture and practices of the particular community of practice. Primary care community clinics are utilised for placements in teaching. (Coulby, et al citing Billet, 2001; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Vygotsky, 1978).

Although work-based placements are regarded essential; Coulby, et al realise that these learning and teaching environments are challenged by practical and sometimes complex issues such as:

• Unreliable or restricted access to PCs and IT infrastructure; resulting in a lack of access to contemporary information; learning materials and social networks.
• Students experiencing uncertainty due to inadequate feedback on their performance resulting in unpreparedness; as well as insufficient monitoring, mentoring and tutoring (pastoral care) due to inadequate resources.

A potential solution explored is the ‘Assessment and Learning in Practical Settings’ (ALPS) programme, which employed mobile technologies. Common competencies, representing ‘readiness’ for professional practice were identified and developed into mobile assessment tools—which enable and encourage students to seek a spectrum of assessment opportunities such as from peers in the health and social care professions; from service users (patients); and self-reflection. The ‘ALPS’ assessments are completed are automatically captured online in e-portfolios; which in turn enable tutor and student review and commentary—in this way future practice of students are shaped and high-level scaffolding feasible. The University of Leeds, for example, has several hundred students in six different discipline/qualification cohorts.

Coulby, C; Laxton, J; Boomer, S & Davies, N. 2011. Mobile technology and assessment: A case study from the ALPS (Assessment and Learning in Practical Settings) programme, pp. 51-70. In N Pachler, C Pimmer & J Seipold (Eds). 2011. Work-based Mobile Learning — concepts and cases. Oxford: Peter Lang.

Videos for students seeking workplace experience: CV/resume writing & Interviews

10 TOP TIPS for first time job seekers (Source: www.innovatecv.com):

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CaOBtfVp8Lg

1. Make sure what is wanted — gather the facts
2. Identify own strengths and weaknesses — practice talking about strengths; selling self — what can contribute; prepare to talk about developmental areas
3. Consider transferable skills from past achievements — practice talking about these
4. Prepare a CV that stands out from the rest — sell self and what can bring to an organisation
5. Sign up with reputable recruitment agencies that would strive to get relevant jobs

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ULfgy71L4vo&feature=relmfu

1. Network — tell everyone in personal network and who meet that looking
2. Diligently prepare for each interview — research the organisation and the interviewers
3. Consider each opportunity coming up
4. Be yourself — smile, relax, show what you can offer
5. Don’t give up — tenacity

Basic how-to resume/CV writing making use of PC software.

How to Write a Good Resume

Building Your Resume as a Student — five key points:

1. Employers look for strong academic records
2. Demonstration of leadership skills important
3. Work experience very important
4. Experiential learning an important alternative
5. Demonstration of extra-curricular activities adds value

Some practical tips on telephone job interviews - things to keep in mind.

Mistakes to avoid concerning a Job Interview.

A short video on Body Language during a Job Interview.

An example of really bad conduct by an interviewee and an example of much better conduct.

Disorganised and confusing connection of business needs with HE provision

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 26) concludes that “mechanisms to connect business needs with higher education provision are generally disorganised and confusing”. He starts the section of saying that “in higher education, workforce development is often referred to as work-based learning and is increasingly recognised as a field of study” (p. 24). He cites Costley’s (2001) observation that such work-based learning by higher education institutions incorporates “the learning people do, for, in and through work” (emphasis added) and quotes examples of longevity:

• Sandwich courses (academic study interspaced with work experience) and placements (elsewhere called (cooperative and work-integrated education) for longer than a century.
• Structured continuing professional development courses which recognise knowledge gained through work experience.
• Formalised accreditation of prior and experiential learning (APEL) processes.
• Familiarity of learning contracts as instruments in education.

Costley (2001, in Roodhouse 2010: 25) identify synonyms including “work based, work related, placement activities, elective modules, independent study, APEL, reach out, CPD, work based learning”. She further indicates that in most cases work based learning forms part of existing programmes at universities; and that learning outcomes and assessment criteria are embedded in the subject knowledge areas derived from scholarly activities and research.

The lack of sustained engagement of higher education in workforce development is difficult to conceptualise, observes Roodhouse (2010: 25) and highlights his observation with the following University Vocational Awards Council (2002):

We somehow seem to be incapable of learning from experience. Succeeding generations of employers are still marooned in tedious development project steering committees whose proceedings take place in academic jargon. Frustrated academics are still struggling to secure placements and projects with the very companies who are lambasting the quality of their graduates’ work readiness.

Roodhouse (2010: 25) speculates that it could also be “intellectual scepticism amongst the academic community, that employability which is associated with work-based learning is nothing more than a continuous conflict between individuals, market demands and fluctuations”.

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

It is important that learning on work experience placement is understood

Eames and Cates (2011: 41) point out that there is a scarcity of research concerning cooperative and work-integrated education about “the educational outcomes from, and processes in, work placements”; as well as “understanding about learning in the work placement”. They argue (p. 42) that “understanding how learning occurs” during work-integrated learning placements would help legitimise workplace experience as legitimate aspect of cooperative programmes as educative. There is way too much emphasis on employer ratings and student papers concerning their work-integrated learning placements “in order to award credit”. Too little effort is devoted to “finding out what the students are really learning” from workplace experiences—“credit is not simply given for work experience” but should be given for the “learning [that is] resulting from work experience”. Eames and Cates (2011: 42) therefore consider it important that learning on “work experience [placement] is understood” in order “that appropriate curricula, pedagogy, and assessment can be designed and implemented”.

Eames and Cates (2011: 41) remark that research and development has mainly been pragmatically applied-descriptive and evaluative—what constitutes the successful operation; the outcomes of work placements; career clarification for students; enabling recruitment of candidates perceived suitable; collaboration with work-integrated learning hosts; completion of study-related projects; and attraction of students to programmes.

Eames, C. & Cates, C. 2011. Theories of learning in cooperative and work-integrated education (pp. 41-52). In R.K. Coll & K.E. Zegwaard (Eds.). International handbook for cooperative and work-integrated education (2^nd ed.). World Association for Cooperative Education Inc.

Download EamesC+CatesC_Theories_of_learning_in_cooperative+work-integrated_Education

http://www.waceinc.org/handbook_orderform.html

Practicals are experiential learning not CWIL

Laboratory (or other) practicals serve a very important complementory purpose in that it gives learners/students experiential learning application of theory opportunities to better understand and internalise. However, by definition it is most likely not cooperative work-integrated learning (CWIL). Unless, industry provides the real-life application opportunities, for example the Statler Hotel at Cornell University. Then obviously practicals are CWIL (or an aspect thereof).

Then again, students often refer to a lab practical when they mean a practical exam taking place in a laboratory. Language and terminology are used democratically and people assign meaning as they see fit. This emphasises the importance of specifying or defining in order to make sure you are correctly understood.

Drafting experiential education procedures for a university

Those who have been involved in a policy and/or procedure creation process at a university will know it is not an easy task. Substantial literature reviews (which I blogged about during the recent past) that informed a first draft had been undertaken. This draft (Download Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning) has been distributed by e-mail to key role players within the university for critique and comment. The commentary received has been incorporated and a second draft made institutionally available on Intranet and called for commentary through the university's daily e-news mail (Download 2nd Draft of Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning).

At this point a meeting with a senior educational-support line manager resulted in further review and supplementation. A third draft -- Download 3rd Draft of Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning has been produced, which served as discussion document with several key stakeholders. Following thorough consultation and incorporation of input, contributions, commentary, critique and recommended structural changes the process has since arrived at a sixth draft -- Download 6th draft towards a Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning. The sixth draft got formally tabled at a committee within the structure and accepted in principle - subject to a few changes. This new version (Download Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning DRAFT 2-1 - apologies for the hyperlinks to Intranet pages that readers would not have access to) is now the official 2nd draft, for which a powerpoint presentation (Download Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning) had been prepared in order to present it at a next level internal committee.

Ultimately a Procedural Manual for Experiential Learning had been presented to Senate 13 June 2012 and approved, whereafter it was placed on Intranet with the University Council approved Policy for Experiential Learning.

Three modes of experiential education

The Best Practices for Legal Education (2007) publication of the Clinical Legal Education Association (CLEA) represents the fruit of 25 years of rich dialogue among American law teachers, lawyers, and judges, regarding the education of lawyers. In the foreword is stated that the American Bar Association convened a 1984 conference ‘Legal Education and the Profession: Approaching the 21st Century’. The foreword further states that in 1987 Justice Rosalie Wahl of the Minnesota Supreme Court and Chair of the ABA Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar rhetorically asked:

Have we really tried in law school to determine what skills, what attitudes, what character traits, what quality of mind are required of lawyers? Are we adequately educating students through the content and methodology of our present law school curriculums to perform effectively as lawyers after graduation?

The purpose of this elaborate prologue is to convey the credible nature of the three modes of experiential education identified in Chapter 5: Best Practices for Experiential Courses (pp 121 – 152, note that the page numbers of individual online chapters differ from the full publication) of the CLEA Best Practices for Legal Education (2007: 122), namely:

• In-house law clinics offering students opportunities to represent clients or perform other professional roles under the supervision of members of the faculty
• Externships — where students represent clients or perform other professional roles under the supervision of practicing lawyers or they observe or assist practicing lawyers or judges in their work
• Simulation-based courses granting students hypothetical situations to assume professional roles and perform law-related tasks

These three modes, although many different terms are used, are common in many disciplines, for example:

• Practicals, laboratory work, applied field experiences facilitated and managed by lecturers
• Work-integrated/experiential/work-based learning in the occupational field under supervision of an experienced practitioner
• Simulated learning providing experience in hypothetical situations

Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998: 244) address externships as a means for law students to obtain a credit “working in legal settings”. It is interesting to note that “in the United States, students may not receive financial compensation for work which warrants educational credit”. Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998) identify both advantages and disadvantages with regard to externships. Potential advantages include “lower costs, variety of opportunities, work experience, service to the community, and flexibility”. As far as disadvantages are concerned, the main one identified is the potential “lack of control over the quality of the educational experience”.

Brayne, H; Duncan, N & Grimes, R. 1998. Clinical legal education: active learning in your law school. London: Blackstone.

Stuckey, R & Others. 2007. Best Practices for Legal Education. United States: Clinical Legal Education Association. Retrieved 2 November 2011 from: http://www.cleaweb.org/best-practices -- note the hyperlink to the best practices blog at the bottom of the web page.

Good practice principles for implementing WIL programmes

Professor Janice Orrell (2011: 20) suggests that universities are responsible, when implementing WIL programmes, for ensuring that:

1. Students are sufficiently prepared and fit for the workplace demands.
2. Sufficient resources and infrastructure are available to ensure duty of care to education.
3. All students have equal access to full participation in a WIL experience where a degree program offers such experiences.
4. Indigenous students receive appropriate support in their WIL placements.
5. Students with disabilities have access to WIL programs in their course of study and receive appropriate support in their placement.
6. International students receive support to understand and adapt to Australian socio-cultural workplace environments, and their personal cultural background and prior knowledge are recognised as valued attributes.
7. WIL programs meet the requirements of professional registration and accreditation organisations.
8. WIL programs are designed to be mutually beneficial to all stakeholders.
9. WIL programs are integrated into the curriculum so that they have clear educational expectations, and are a vehicle for integrating theory and practice learning.
10. Evidence from a variety of sources is used to monitor, evaluate and improve the effectiveness of diverse WIL program arrangements.

Orrell, J. 2011. Good practice report: work-integrated learning. Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC). Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR).

Download Work-integrated learning ALTC Good practice report Orrell J 201110

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Three-prong implementation plan: Workplace learning and/or simulations

The point of departure ought to be the institutional Team Approach Framework to Curriculum and Learning Development (TAFCLD). This framework specifies with regard to both Step 1: Academic Review and/or Feasibility Study; and Step 2: Curriculum Planning; that the team involved ought to include occupational field representation. The inclusion of relevant industry; commerce; local, provincial and central government; relevant NGOs; relevant professional and/or vocational bodies; and potential employers is of particular importance should workplace learning be agreed upon as a curriculum requirement. The initial representation serves as spring board for further networking in order to secure sufficient workplace learning hosting partnerships.

Where to start procedures for cooperative and work-integrated education?

At collaboration! CWIE is about cooperative education and about integrating work in education. An educational institution cannot offer CWIE programmes in isolation. Partnerships/collaboration is essential.

Internationally, it is considered essential to work according to unambiguous standard operating procedures (SOPs) to maintain quality. A SOP is a “written procedure prescribed for repetitive use as a practice, in accordance with agreed upon specifications aimed at obtaining a desired outcome”.

Why integrate work experience in a learning programme? The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) defines a learning programme as “the sequential learning activities, associated with curriculum implementation, leading to the achievement of a particular qualification or part qualification”. The decision to include work experience in a learning programme is a curriculum decision—where curriculum “refers to all of the teaching and learning opportunities that take place in learning institutions including:

• purpose and values of the learning
• learning outcomes
• content, activities, methods, media
• teaching, learning strategies
• forms of assessment
• evaluation of delivery, moderation”

If workplace experience is considered necessary it is included. But who decided? Stakeholder representation in the decision making is essential for determining fitness of purpose. However, unless the perceived relevant workplace experience can be adequately replicated within the teaching delivery, partnerships with sufficient stakeholder hosts are an undeniable necessity.

The starting point for any qualification therefore is adequate stakeholder representation. If during such stakeholder deliberations about the curriculum of the qualification indicate that inclusion workplace learning is regarded necessary, then shared responsibility and stakeholder partnerships become a condition of the learning programme. This is how cooperative work-integrated education become part of the teaching strategy.

It is further important that the educational institution nurture and expand the stakeholder involvement and establish sufficient partnerships to have sufficient hosting opportunities for the credit-bearing curriculum part work experience.

The nature of the work experience; the learning content thereof; how the learning would be acquired; the methods of accumulation of evidence of such learning; and the assessment thereof forms part of the teaching and learning development that flows from the curriculum decision.

The methods of maintaining communication with stakeholders; the identification of students in need of placement; the facilitation of the selection by organisations as to which student/s will be hosted; the preparation of students for such selection; the placement procedures and contracting with host organisations; the monitoring of the required workplace experience and monitoring of the mentoring of the learning; the monitoring of formative assessment and the summative assessment of accomplishment; would all form part of the SOPs.

Semester in-industry learning industry affiliates model

The semester-in-industry model is, according to Edwards (2007) a characteristic of the Australian undergraduate engineering work-integrated learning industry affiliates program. Engineers Australia, the Australian engineering accrediting body, advocates that a key differentiating element of a professional engineering degree from an applied science degree is exposure through work-practice. The industry affiliates program entail students work on a joint industry-university supervised project during the first semester of the final year. Edwards (2007) summarizes the roles and responsibilities of the three partners to the industry affiliates program as follow:

• The industry partner provides the resources for the project; technical supervision for the student; and a suitable workplace for the student similar to that provided for commencing engineers. Industry partners are not expected to pay students.
• The aim is to integrate the student into the professional culture of organization. The student manages the project and adheres to the dress and attendance standards of the industry partner.
• The university selects suitable projects (in consultation with industry partners); help match students to projects; and provides academic supervision of students by visiting student in industry placement to ensure the meeting of requirements.

 The schedule of a typical industry affiliates program model is as follow (Edwards 2007):

October (of year before)	Briefing of students and preparation of CVs
November	List of project topics released and student apply
December to January	Students interviewed and selected for projects
February	Pre-industry workshops; agreements signed between industry partner and student; and student prepares project milestones
February to June	Industry experience by executing an assigned project and regular monitoring of project plan by industry and university
June	Exhibition of projects and submission of thesis

Work-integrated Learning (WiL) is a term used by many Australian universities and internationally to refer to activities that integrate the work (or industry) experience with formal studies. Edwards (2007) points out that it can take multiple forms, such as periods of work experience, internships, site visits, industry based projects, case studies using industry experience, having industry experts provide guest lectures, etc.

Edwards, D. 2007. Integrating Work Integrated Learning. Presented at the International Conference on Engineering Education – ICEE 2007, September 3 – 7, Coimbra, Portugal. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://www.ineer.org/Events/ICEE2007/papers/226.pdf   

Community-setting work-integrated learning

A university-community practicum model differs vastly in structure and content from the traditional models of practice learning, reports Dent and Tourville (2002).

• In the traditional post-secondary education model, students are placed within a host organisation where suitably qualified workplace supervisors act as field-instructors to teach students the relevant knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSAs) necessary to fulfil the goals and responsibilities of the profession/vocation. University practicum coordinators furthermore oversee and monitor the learning.
• In rural, suburbian and inner-city communities there are not necessary suitably qualified (in accordance with accreditation body criteria) persons available to do the practicum instruction. To overcome this shortcoming grant-funded professionals are contracted and students are often deployed in groups and alongside other community-service initiatives. — This group-learning model is also effectively used in clinical training in teaching hospitals, where a group of students do ward rounds with a qualified professional and have group meetings to debate the most appropriate medical care based on each patient's symptoms and condition.

It is important that the community needs and wishes must always dictate where the service begins and what the overall aim is — this can be subdivided into the various university discipline areas. Academics concerned then provide an appropriate theoretical framework. Each student can in turn within this context formulate both macro and micro practicum learning objectives, proposed activities and related responsibilities. These learning contracts should be approved prior to commencement with both relevant academics and community leadership.

Dent, T.J. & Tourville, A. 2002. University-community partnerships — Practicum learning for community revitalization. In Shardlow, S.M. & Doel, M. (Eds) 2002. Learning to practice social work — International approaches. London: Jessica Kingsley.