Learning in vivo

Real-world learning opportunities help students increase their understanding

Real-world learning complement the methodological competence of students in applying problem-solving approaches, say Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010). Real-world learning affords students opportunities to critically reflect on, to negotiate and collaborate with academic supervisors and community project partners. Students get the opportunity to turn intellectual concepts and methods into personal practical ability. Learning from addressing real-world sustainability problems exposes students to “where the rubber hits the road”, according to Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 311). Students learn from the development of sustainability strategies and projects, within the context of real-life politics, culture, traditions, and existing processes. Real-world scenarios force students to explore and identify accountability; to hold the relevant people accountable; and to accept own accountability with respect to the real-world sustainability project agreement.

Although students are likely to develop key competencies in sustainability from real-world learning opportunities; the key competencies which students need to develop must be made known’ Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 313) caution that “the devil is in the details”. The design and implementation of the real-world learning determines the nature and scope of the experience. The “functional and progressive” model of integrating real-world learning into the curriculum comprises a number of loosely structured real-world learning experiences in preparation for the capstone experience. This is illustrated by Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 314) in Figure 1 below. The real-world learning is spread over four years. Three factors shape the nature of the learning, namely (1) the role of the instructors to design and facilitate; (2) the level of interaction of students with the partners in the community project; and (3) the different forms of collaboration. There is linear progression. Figure 2 illustrates the capstone module in more detail and Figure 3 indicates how the capstone-module option may help students develop certain key competencies but not necessary all/others.

Brundiers, K.; Wiek, A. & Redman C. L. 2010. Real-world learning opportunities in sustainability: from classroom into the real world. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 11 (4): 308-324.

eService to enable experiential learning for online programmes

Constructing experiential learning for online or distance learning qualifications, presents specific challenges. Interactions, both among students and with teaching staff, are further considered essential to the online or distance learning environment. Preparing students academically is not sufficient; higher education institutions are accountable to society to prepare students for the complex issues they will as graduates encounter in the workplace. Experiential learning serves a vehicle with regard to the latter.

Higher education institutions have embraced service-learning as “a form of experiential education in which students engage in activities that address human and community needs and have structured opportunities to participate in activities designed to promote their learning and development” (Strait & Sauer, 2004: 62). Service-learning fosters critical thinking and interpersonal skills in that students provide community service as part of the curriculum of their qualification/s; learn about the community context and reflect about it; and gain an understanding of the connection between academic studies and the service rendered.

Conventional service-learning of residential higher education institution is generally in proximity to the institution where students are studying and access therefore relatively easy. With online or distance learning students are scattered and based in their own communities, which may be diverse. The challenge is to facilitate quality service-learning experience of multiple students in multiple communities. This type of distributed service-learning Strait and Sauer (2004: 62) call eService.

The published article shares the eService model and scope of attempts. A Language and a science application are portrayed. The authors share what the learned and challenges. They conclude with suggestions and future plans.

Strait, J. & Sauer, T. 2004. Constructing experiential learning for online courses: the birth of e-service. Educause Quarterly, 1(1), January 2004, 62-65. Retrieved from Internet 28 March 2013 from: http://www.educause.edu/ero/article/constructing-experiential-learning-online-courses-birth-e-service

A process model for internships

Narayanan, Olk and Fukami (2010: 65) identified three (3) sets of the same three (3) actors interacting in a process. There is some similarity with the cooperative education system model, which is based on Lessing's (1985) training-system model. The latter identified four (4) interacting elements in the transformation/processes (middle) phase.

Narayanan, V.K.; Olk, P.M. & Fukami, C.V. 2010. Determinants of Internship Effectiveness: An Exploratory Model. Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 9, No. 1, 61–80.

Restorative Formative Normative Custodian

In an article titled ‘But I thought you were doing that’ Rowe, Mackaway and Winchester-Seeto (2012) attempt to clarify the role of the host mentor/supervisor in the experience-based learning setting. They present the following model:

The model identifies four key roles: Restorative (supporting the student); Formative (fulfilling an educatinal role); Normative (administrative functions); and Custodian (guardian role within the community of practice). 

The article elaborates on the aspects that make up the four roles.

Rowe, T.; Mackaway, J. & Winchester-Seeto, T. 2012. ‘But I thought you were doing that’ – Clarifying the role of the host supervisor in experience-based learning. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 2012(2), 115-134.

Sensory information type and processing preference

In order to optimise learning through simulated experiences, the Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model (FSLSM) is recommended. People exhibit different ways they prefer to learn and by incorporating different learning styles in teaching plans learning is made easier. Graf, Viola, Leo and Kinshuk (2007) observe that FSLSM is often used in the design of technology-enhanced learning. The learning styles models of Kolb (1984) and Honey and Mumford (1982)—in contrast to Felder and Silverman (1988)—classify learners into a few groups. FSLSM describes learning styles in more detail, distinguishing four dimensions depicted below (Sidhu, 2010: 23):

Graf, Viola, Leo and Kinshuk (2007) further points out that FSLSM is based on tendencies. They point out that although learners with a strong preference for certain learning style may experience difficulty if the teaching style does not match their preferred learning style; indeed sometimes behave differently. They further convey that educational researchers in recent years investigated how incorporating learning style models impact technology-enhanced learning and found that FSLSM is highly appropriate for hypermedia courseware. It has been found that when students do an online course that matched their preferred learning style they achieved significantly better results compared to students who took a course that did not match.

The first dimension—sensory/intuitive—Students that prefer learning facts and concrete learning material have a sensing learning style. Such students prefer standard approaches in solving problems; to relate the learned material to the real world; and tend to be more patient with details. They are generally realistic, sensible and practical. Intuitive learners, by contrast, prefer learning abstract learning material, such as the underlying theories and their meanings. Such students tend to be innovative and creative as well as more able to discover possibilities and relationships.

The second dimension—visual/verbal—Students with a visual preference learn and retain best what they have seen, for example pictures, diagrams, and flow-charts. Verbal learners derive more from textual representations, both written and spoken.

The third dimension—active/reflective—addresses different ways of processing information. Some students learn best by actively engaging; trying out and by applying the learning material. They further tend to prefer communicating and by working in groups where they can converse. Other students, in contrast, prefer to reflect and think about learning material. They prefer working alone or possibly in a small group or with a good buddy.

The fourth dimension—sequential/global—is about characterising students according to their understanding. Those students that learn in small incremental steps in linear progression are sequential learners. They prefer following logical step-by-step paths towards solutions and are interested in details. Global learners, however, use holistic thinking processes learning in large leaps. Such students tend to absorb learning material almost randomly, not necessary seeing connections initially but suddenly grasp the whole picture. They are capable to solve complex problems; to find connections between dissimilar areas; and to put things together in novel ways. However, they can seldom explain how they did it. Global learners prefer overviews and broad knowledge.

Sidhu (2010: 23) poses four questions:

1. What type of sensory information is most perceived?
2. What type of information does the student preferentially perceive?
3. How does the student prefer to process information?
4. How does the student characteristically progress towards understanding?

Graf, S.; Viola, S.R.; Leo, T & Kinshuk. 2007. In-Depth Analysis of the Felder-Silverman Learning Style Dimensions. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, Fall 2007, 40(1). Accessed on Internet 31 May 2012 from: http://wit.at/people/graf/publications/graf_viola_kinshuk_leo_JRTEjournal.pdf

Sidhu, M.S. 2010. Technology-assisted problem solving for engineering education: interactive multimedia applications. Hershey: Engineering Science Reference.

Attributes and learning-styles of students affect their learning

Sidhu (2010: 16) identifies the following attributes that may hinder or improve learning:

• Basic background knowledge of the subject matter / discipline / field of study
• Prior academic performance impacts on a student’s performance
• Degree of exposure to contemporary educational technologies — the use of computer-based learning is enabled if students already acquired PC usage skills
• The impact of the learning styles of students have been extensively researched

Depicted below are Kolb’s as well as Honey and Mumfords learning style models, some of the most well known models:

http://www.businessballs.com/kolblearningstyles.htm

http://www.nonformality.org/2006/04/excuse-misuse-or-abuse/

Kolb’s experiential learning styles are in black, Honey and Mumford’s in red.

http://pmj.bmj.com/content/83/982/518.full

http://rphrm.curtin.edu.au/2000/issue2/outcomes.html

Sidhu, M.S. 2010. Technology-assisted problem solving for engineering education: interactive multimedia applications. Hershey: Engineering Science Reference.

Instructional design for simulation

Literally, instructional design means “a set of events that facilitate learning” (instructional) and “a creative model” (design)—it includes a number of systematic processes to plan and create situations and/or events that would enhance the learning of individuals. Underlying instructional design are learning theory paradigms, based on various schools of thought, for example behaviourist—representing those believing that learning results in changed behaviour; cognitive—the proponents who believe adding of new concepts and ideas result in learning; and constructivist—those that believe that “learners construct knowledge for themselves” (Sidhu, 2010: 12-14).

There are hundreds of instructional design models. However, Reigeluth (1999, cited by Sidhu, 2010: 14) indicates that four major characteristics are common to instructional design, namely:

• “Design orientation,
• Identification of methods of instruction and situations,
• Methods of instruction that can be broken into more detail components methods, and
• Choice of Probalistic Methods”

Design theory is important because it renders “a vision of instruction early in the design process”—an ends of “how learners would be different as result of” the learning. The ultimate user plays a significant role, advocates Banathy (1991, cited by Sidhu, 2010: 14) who calls for a “much greater use of the notion of user-design”. Theory further provides guidance to instructional design at three levels according to Reigeluth (1999, cited by Sidhu, 2010: 14 and emphasis added):

• “Methods that best facilitate learning under different situations,
• Learning tool features that best allow an array of alternative methods to be made available to learners, [and]
• Systems features that best allow an instructional design team to design quality learning tools.”

Sidhu (2010: 14-15) prefers the ADDIE Model of design: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation.

Sidhu, M.S. 2010. Technology-assisted problem solving for engineering education: interactive multimedia applications. Hershey: Engineering Science Reference.

Nine events of instruction — Gagné

Gagné’s “Nine Events of Instruction”, referenced in Becker (2007: 27 – 29) support the instructional design of five areas of learning capabilities:

• Verbal, both oral and written, information
• Intellectual skills, including manipulation of symbolic information as well as problem solving
• Creative cognitive strategies and control over own learning
• Physical motor skills
• Personal attitudes influencing choice

Gagné’s Nine Events provide for conditions of learning, as well as guidelines for selection of appropriate media:

1. Reception, attracting and gaining attention
2. Creating expectancy by making the objectives known
3. Retrieval of prior knowledge by stimulating recall of former learning
4. Presentation of the stimulus, encouragement and challenge (selective perception)
5. Offer self-contained learning—learning guidance provided within (semantic encoding)
6. Elicit interactive performance or responding
7. Reinforcement by providing feedback
8. Assessment of performance (retrieval)
9. Generalise by enhancing retention and transfer of learning

Becker, K. 2007. Pedagogy in commercial video games. In D Gibson; C Aldrich & M Prensky. 2007. Games and simulations in online learning: research and development frameworks (pp 21 – 47). Hershey: Information Science Publishing.

Post-simulation reflection

Margaret Gredler (1992: 141 – 159) emphasises the role of post-simulation activities and the planning thereof. She asserts that simulations are experiential in nature in that participants “step into the assigned roles, accept the responsibilities and constraints and work through the problems and difficulties that arise in the execution of the roles”. To overcome the reality of can’t see the woods for the trees (because of active involvement in the simulation); bring the learning forth; and to maximise the learning; reflection about the simulation is essential.

Gredler (1992) discusses two experiential learning models, namely Kurt Lewin’s (a Gestalt theorist) group-dynamics model and Jean Piaget’s (a Swiss psychologist) cognitive development model.

Jaques (1985, referenced in Gredler) describes the adaptation of Lewin’s ideas in a five-part experiential learning cycle, which upon completion feeds into another cycle.

Piaget postulates that cognitive structures happens through two processes; namely by means of assimilation of new information into the existing to enrich; and by accommodating which can occur in two different ways. The one way of accommodation is modification in order to integrate new information; the other way is through reconstruction to a higher level of thinking.

Post-simulation reflection need to form part of and conclude the simulation. In a distance learning context, this could be achieved through online discussion.

Gredler, M. 1992. Designing and evaluating games and simulations, a process approach. London: Kogan Page.

Jaques, D. 1985. Debriefing, debriefing, 55 – 66. In M van Ments and K Hearndon (eds). Effective use of games and simulations. Loughborough: SAGSET, Loughborough Institute of Technology.

Tactical-decisions and social-system simulations

Higher education graduates often acquired little more than textbook problem abilities. Although theory taught is sometimes followed by some clinic, workshop, laboratory, practicum, field experience, clinical/workplace experience, or internship; students often lack the opportunity to develop their own cognitive and systematic problem-solving ability. Furthermore, the different situations individual students are exposed to often vary substantially in complexity and difficulty, resulting in the development of varied abilities. Gredler (1992) suggests that tactical-decision simulations can alleviate this shortcoming in problem-solving ability. Such simulations entail a situation that require of participants to make independent decisions in a dynamic environment. Tactical-decision simulations involve data-interpretation and management decision-making. Gredler (1992) presents three kinds:

• Diagnostic simulations help develop the ability to solve complex evolving problems, which is a requirement of several career-paths and walks of life. Two sub-types are common, namely professional-client/patient situations and solve-the-mystery challenges.
• Crisis-management simulations in the form of a scenario that requires appropriate intervention. Different participants fulfil different roles in seeking a solution to avert or minimise an impending threat or danger, which escalates and become more acute as time passes.
• Data-management simulations entail the manipulation of quantifiable variables, such as financial. In contemporarily society the ability to manage data and make trade-offs in order to thrive (and survive) is a given. Two simulation formats exists, namely closed-structure for individual roles to manage data and open-structure for team-collaboration. Simulation-design issues typically include the relevant mathematical model and identification of the key decisions required from participants.

Gredler (1992) further suggests social-process-simulations which require of participants to focus on interactions among people. The beliefs, assumptions, and goals of individual participants and significant others may hinder or assist. Social-process-simulations also include three kinds:

• Social-system simulations include the integrate fabric of inter-relations of groups further complicated by different cultures, religions and personalities. Decision-making that involves the interaction among people is of particular importance.
• Language-skills and communication is crucial to social-processes. Simulations are powerful ways of mastering language, including written and verbal communication.
• Empathy and insight simulations enact typical fast pace and competing demand realities of life, which are not conducive to demonstrating sensitivity and empathy. The aim of these simulations is for participants to acquire insight in the feelings of other and to demonstrate empathy.

Gredler, M. 1992. Designing and evaluating games and simulations, a process approach. London: Kogan Page.

The design of simulations

Literature on simulation design reveals numerous step-by-step designs, report Jones (1995: 60), often in the form of a sequential flow diagram, for example:

Jones (1995) finds such a sequential process restricting, because creating a simulation is not about a series of tasks. Instead designing simulations involve imagination, values, and consistency he says. Jones (1995: 61 & 1997: 121) recommends four basic questions for design:

1. What is the problem? — issue, situation (or what is the event about? — general picture)
2. Who are the participants? — roles, identities, powers
3. What do they have to do? — job, decision-making, function
4. What do they do it with? — documents, materials, instructions, existing knowledge

Jones cautions that these four questions should not be seen as steps; but rather a conscious underlying methodology. The questions should not be answered explicitly either—Jones (1995: 61) points out that all well designed simulations contain implicit answers to the four questions.

Jones, K. 1995. Simulations, a handbook for teachers and trainers. 3^rd edition. London: Kogan Page.

Jones, K. 1997. Games & simulations made easy. London: Kogan Page.

Three-prong implementation plan: Workplace learning and/or simulations

The point of departure ought to be the institutional Team Approach Framework to Curriculum and Learning Development (TAFCLD). This framework specifies with regard to both Step 1: Academic Review and/or Feasibility Study; and Step 2: Curriculum Planning; that the team involved ought to include occupational field representation. The inclusion of relevant industry; commerce; local, provincial and central government; relevant NGOs; relevant professional and/or vocational bodies; and potential employers is of particular importance should workplace learning be agreed upon as a curriculum requirement. The initial representation serves as spring board for further networking in order to secure sufficient workplace learning hosting partnerships.

A typology and modalities of simulations

It is generally understood what is meant by simulation. However, a precise education definition says Guillaume Alinier (2007) presents problems. A six-level typology of simulation methodologies, with their respective characteristics, is proposed, namely:

Level 0	Level 1	Level 2	Level 3	Level 4	Level 5
Written simulations, including images	3-D models, such as a mannequin, low fidelity & part-task	Screen-based simulation software, DVDs, virtual realities	Standardised real or role play, e.g. trained actors	Intermediate fidelity PC controlled, programme-able; but not fully inter-active	Interactive PC controlled model driven; known as high-fidelity simulation platforms

Download Typology of educ focused medical simulation tools 

In addition, the Staff Educator (2009) acknowledges that there is a wide range of simulation modalities and identifies six:

• Low-fidelity simulation modalities — generally static models allowing very little learner interaction
• High-fidelity simulation modalities, e.g. complex simulators
• Standardized patient educators — specially trained ‘actors’ to portray
• Serious gaming — uses video game technology
• Desktop simulations and virtual worlds
• Virtual reality and visualisation

Health Leaders Media. The Many Forms of Simulation Training. The Staff Educator, 3 November 2009, HCPro, Inc.

Strategies for Nurse Managers, Inc. Simulation learning modalities: Going beyond the basics.

Semester in-industry learning industry affiliates model

The semester-in-industry model is, according to Edwards (2007) a characteristic of the Australian undergraduate engineering work-integrated learning industry affiliates program. Engineers Australia, the Australian engineering accrediting body, advocates that a key differentiating element of a professional engineering degree from an applied science degree is exposure through work-practice. The industry affiliates program entail students work on a joint industry-university supervised project during the first semester of the final year. Edwards (2007) summarizes the roles and responsibilities of the three partners to the industry affiliates program as follow:

• The industry partner provides the resources for the project; technical supervision for the student; and a suitable workplace for the student similar to that provided for commencing engineers. Industry partners are not expected to pay students.
• The aim is to integrate the student into the professional culture of organization. The student manages the project and adheres to the dress and attendance standards of the industry partner.
• The university selects suitable projects (in consultation with industry partners); help match students to projects; and provides academic supervision of students by visiting student in industry placement to ensure the meeting of requirements.

 The schedule of a typical industry affiliates program model is as follow (Edwards 2007):

October (of year before)	Briefing of students and preparation of CVs
November	List of project topics released and student apply
December to January	Students interviewed and selected for projects
February	Pre-industry workshops; agreements signed between industry partner and student; and student prepares project milestones
February to June	Industry experience by executing an assigned project and regular monitoring of project plan by industry and university
June	Exhibition of projects and submission of thesis

Work-integrated Learning (WiL) is a term used by many Australian universities and internationally to refer to activities that integrate the work (or industry) experience with formal studies. Edwards (2007) points out that it can take multiple forms, such as periods of work experience, internships, site visits, industry based projects, case studies using industry experience, having industry experts provide guest lectures, etc.

Edwards, D. 2007. Integrating Work Integrated Learning. Presented at the International Conference on Engineering Education – ICEE 2007, September 3 – 7, Coimbra, Portugal. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://www.ineer.org/Events/ICEE2007/papers/226.pdf   

Community-setting work-integrated learning

A university-community practicum model differs vastly in structure and content from the traditional models of practice learning, reports Dent and Tourville (2002).

• In the traditional post-secondary education model, students are placed within a host organisation where suitably qualified workplace supervisors act as field-instructors to teach students the relevant knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSAs) necessary to fulfil the goals and responsibilities of the profession/vocation. University practicum coordinators furthermore oversee and monitor the learning.
• In rural, suburbian and inner-city communities there are not necessary suitably qualified (in accordance with accreditation body criteria) persons available to do the practicum instruction. To overcome this shortcoming grant-funded professionals are contracted and students are often deployed in groups and alongside other community-service initiatives. — This group-learning model is also effectively used in clinical training in teaching hospitals, where a group of students do ward rounds with a qualified professional and have group meetings to debate the most appropriate medical care based on each patient's symptoms and condition.

It is important that the community needs and wishes must always dictate where the service begins and what the overall aim is — this can be subdivided into the various university discipline areas. Academics concerned then provide an appropriate theoretical framework. Each student can in turn within this context formulate both macro and micro practicum learning objectives, proposed activities and related responsibilities. These learning contracts should be approved prior to commencement with both relevant academics and community leadership.

Dent, T.J. & Tourville, A. 2002. University-community partnerships — Practicum learning for community revitalization. In Shardlow, S.M. & Doel, M. (Eds) 2002. Learning to practice social work — International approaches. London: Jessica Kingsley.

Work-integrated learning process model

Co-authors, Estelle van Rensburg and Riana Rheeder, are of opinion that the model sketched below extends well beyond curriculum design and learning development. The model indeed reflects a comprehensive work-integrated learning process; including planning of a programme, design, development, implementation, management and quality assurance.

 

Phase A: The gathering of data for the design/revision of a programme and for future placements of students for prerequisite work-integrated learning (WiL)

The data gathering involves a comprehensive context analysis of all factors that may influence the programme, which among others include the appropriate statutory, professional and/or vocational bodies. A clear statement of the desired knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSA) of graduates is the aim of the needs analysis and/or survey of the authentic industry needs. The following are taken into consideration:

• The statutory context, e.g. legislation and regulations
• Policies
• Observation of appropriate protocol and level/s of liaison
• Day 1 competencies expected by industry from graduates
• Benchmarking against international and local best practices and standards
• Identification of potential hosts employers of students that need to complete WiL

Phase B: Programme design, including work-integrated learning module/s design (or redesign)

1.         Programme design:

• Project plan for the programme as a whole
• Contextual analysis—SKAs / Day 1 competencies / overarching core ideas / main themes
• Curriculum information—outcomes, assessment criteria, etc.
• Coherent programme structure—"design down"
• Identify which part/s only or best learned through real-life work experience or service learning?
• General assessment; learning & teaching; and quality assurance approach
• Templates of standard documents used at the educational institution / in country

2.         Module Design:

• Project plan for each module of the programme
• Contextual analysis—Day 1 module competency, etc.
• Curriculum information—outcomes, assessment criteria, module form, etc.
• Module assessment; learning & teaching (including mentoring); quality assurance (including monitoring).
• Industry/workplace mentors (assessment & training of mentors)
• Develop formal agreements—including commitment from mentors (and training)
• Detailed assessment plan (e.g. portfolio of evidence requirements/logbook); learning & teaching resources (WiL guidelines for students, mentor materials/guidelines).
• Posing the appropriate questions that would unlock learning from experience
• Developing resources
• Develop manuals for industry assessors

 Phase C: Pre-registration and registration

The emphasis of this phase is on alerting students upfront about compulsory WiL; the nature thereof; enabling the recognition of prior learning (RPL) where appropriate or feasible; and identification of students in need of placements for WiL.

Phase D: Securing placements of students for compulsory WiL and finalising arrangements with hosting employers

This phase needs proper structure and a database listing host organisations and the available placement opportunities. Identification of host employers and the building of partnerships should be driven by the academic department.

Phase E: Implementing the WiL module/s — learning and assessment in the workplace

Successful implementation comprises several elements:

• Criteria to be complied with in order to be a mentor, e.g. appropriate registration with professional/statutory body.
• Formalised mentorship agreement, including incentives (e.g. CPD points for mentoring new entrants) and/or remuneration.
• Training of mentors on, among others, assessment through video conferencing, online or workshops.
• An assigned mentor (workplace supervisor) and orientation of students (house rules / code of conduct).
• Cost implications of preventative inoculations (e.g. aspects of animal health WiL) and potential liabilities.
• Professional guidance (spectrum of soft skills); mentor training and mentor guidelines.
• Mentor involvement in assessments and student’s presentation of completed project and/or portfolio of evidence.
• Proper IT and administrative support in College for tracking of students.
• WiL coordinator per department.
• Allocation of students to lecturers.
• Monitoring of students and employers.
• Conditions and criteria with regard to RPL.

 Phase F: Quality assurance of WiL in the programme

The sixth phase feeds back into the first phase, enabling continuous revision and improvement.

Van Rensburg, E., Rheeder, R. & Groenewald, T. 2011.

A systemic enabling environment for successful work-integrated learning

Distance education (DE) and work-integrated learning (WiL) appear to be incompatible to the minds of some higher education (HE) open distance learning (ODL) purists. Yet, WiL is supposed to occur in authentic learning spaces, for example the appropriate work-place.

The Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) of the South African Council for Higher Education (CHE) specifies imperatives, which might be foreign to DE academics that are used to purely theoretical teaching and that do not want to deviate from set resourcing models. However, the imperatives are not much different from those recommended for service learning (as a form of community engagement and outreach). Download Extract_Good_Practice_Guide+Self_Evaluation

One of the nine critical success factors the CHE highlights at module level is reciprocity, which entail a state of mutual exchange. A well coordinated collaborative effort, with clarity of roles and databases, are necessary in order to succeed with regard to the obligation of a higher education institutions (HEIs) to place students that need WiL as part of the qualification/programme registered for. Now reciprocity is a foreign concept for an advocate of academic freedom, which in an era of stake holder accountability got replaced by evidence of adequate consultation before the introduction of or changes to a qualification is approved by the CHE.

The people of the ancient world considered the universe to be constructed from the five elements of Earth, Water, Air, and Fire, and Sky. During the past week a colleague sketched—illustrated below—her vision with regard to a WiL enabling environment, comprising fundamentally five elements with interaction in-between. Another colleague immediately picked up on the systemic nature. While looking on Internet for an illustration of five elements interacting, I came across the traditional Chinese philosophy of five elements; as well as the classical Greek five elements, Hinduism (Tattva), Buddhism (Mahābhūta), Japanese (Godai), Chinese (Wu Xing), Modern and Neo-paganism — fascinating!

We have scheduled a workshop to engage with the five fundamental elements, in order to produce a Procedural Manual on Experiential Learning, is a means towards a systemic enabling environment for successful WiL. Here are some of the triggers already generated.

Student — What is needed in order to enable students to successfully complete their WiL? For example:

• The students in need of WiL placements need to be known
• Unisa need to be know when and where such students are likely to be required to do their WiL
• Students need to know when first registering for a programme/qualification that contains one or more WiL modules that they would be required to complete such and what is involved
• Students need clear guidelines of what learning is required and what learning evidence must be submitted, e.g. portfolio or logbook.
• And?
•  

 Academic — What must lecturers do and/or provide to enable completion of WiL? For example:

• A vocational programme is designed, developed and offered in close collaboration with the fraternity/profession/industry it intends to produce qualified people for—a functional advisory committee with adequate representation of stake holder if critical. Collaboration is the second critical success factor of good practice identified by the CHE.
• The contact details of committed employers, willing to offer our students WiL opportunities, should be accessible on a central database
• The academic designs and develop suitable learning enabling material
• Academics provide guidelines to work-place mentors
• Academic management and lecturers responsible for programmes that entail WiL should continuously expand their networks and recruit employers that are willing to offer our students WiL opportunities
• Lecturers undertake monitoring visits and the summative assessment of the WiL evidence students submit, as well as their mentor assessments
• Where mentors/employers indicate that they are prepared to host other students for WiL, such details should be centrally captured, in order to be available to regional support staff.
• And?
•  

 Regional Support — What is it envisaged, how would regional staff support students regarding WiL? For example:

• Regional staff need access to various data bases:
  • Which students need WiL placements in a particular semester
  • Employers in the area that indicated willingness to take our students for their prerequisite WiL
  • The mentor agreements outlining the role of the workplace mentor (suitable remuneration for mentors need to be addressed)
  • The employer contracts, setting out roles and accountability
• Would identify potential employers in the geographical area concerned and endeavour to recruit such in conjunction with the academics concerned
• Would identify community service need/opportunities that could equate/substitute work-integrated learning and develop such in conjunction with the academics concerned
• Would facilitate preparation of students prior to selection by would be host employers
• And?
•  

Employer — What do employers need and what does the role of employers include regarding the WiL of students? For example:

• Both those of current employed students and those that host students for placements need clarity on the role of the employer, what is expected from the mentor (often the student's workplace supervisor), what the university expects the student to learn and to submit as learning evidence
• Need to be made aware of Sectoral Education & Training Authority (SETA) funding benefits accessible for offering our students workplace experience (SETA terminology) towards obtaining a higher education qualification
• And?
•  

Coordination — What is the expected role of a central unit and what services are expected? For example:

• A comprehensive database of the students involved, who need placements, etc.
• A database of employers that declared willingness to host students for WiL.
• And?

The other seven critical success factors of good practice identified by the CHE are: Needs assessment; Alignment; Student placements; Student orientation; Role clarification; Reflection; and Logistics

Five stages of an internship

The Sweitzer & King (2004) developmental stages of an internship reminds to some extend about the Elisabeth Kübler-Ross (1969) five stages of grief model for death and bereavement counselling, personal change and trauma. The developmental stages of an internship are:

1. Anticipation
2. Disillusionment
3. Confrontation
4. Competence
5. Culmination

Sweitzer, H.F. & King, M.A. 2004. The successful internship—transformation and empowerment in experiential learning, 2^nd edition. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole—Thompson Learning

Work-integrated Learning Flowchart

The South African Department of Education (DoE) & the Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC)  imperatives regarding work-integrated learning (WIL) includes:

§  An obligation to place students

§  Structured learning

§  Learning agreements

§  Communication between role players

§  Mentoring system / supervision

§  Monitoring / assessment system

§  Recording system

An institutional flowchart may be illustrated as such:

  

  

A found a more elaborate flowchart, including references to Unisa's WiL Policy, among documents Download Flowchart WIL Model

 

Work-based learning model

Raelin (2000: 49-65) theorises about work-based learning firstly by comparing theory and practice modes of learning, there after explicit versus tacit forms of knowledge. He then builds a conceptual model by first looking at individual work-based learning, in terms of the two mentioned modes of learning and the two forms of knowledge:

	Explicit	Tacit
Theory:	Conceptualisation	Experimentation
Practice:	Reflection	Experience

He next turns to the organisation, as collective, and builds further on his model of work-based learning:

	Explicit	Tacit
Theory:	Applied science	Action learning
Practice:	Action science	Community of practice

Then he completes his pyramid-shape model (Raelin 2000: 64)

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.