Learning in vivo

Sustainability as emerging academic field challenges what is taught and how

If higher education graduates are to cope with society’s sustainability-challenges, universities must provide students with interactive, experiential, transformative, and real-world learning to suitably prepare them; say Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010). The authors undertook a synthesis of literature on sustainability education (an emerging academic field) with the view of determining how real-world learning can contribute to building key competencies in sustainability. Consensus exists that the capacity-uilding pathways of sustainability education should engage the “head, hands, and heart”.

Sustainability education is concerned with complex non-linear problems with long-term implications; that cut across economic, social, and environmental domains; not just on local but global scales; and involve high degrees of damage potential; and therefore urgency. These often manifest as a conglomerate of problems that require sophisticated “post-normal” solutions and elaborate problem-solving techniques; that challenges basic assumptions; and call for systems-thinking, anticipation, and participatory strategy-building models across established disciplines.

Key competencies in sustainability cannot be acquired by being told about sustainable development. Students need to see and work within a living learning place. They need to experience what a sustainable lifestyle means. Learning must focus on real-world problems, exposing students to corresponding real-world settings. A variety of learning models might be considered, for example project- and/or problem-based learning; service learning; and internships. However, not all real-world learning opportunities are appropriate. Some are more appropriate for extracurricular activities; whereas others do not relate well to the key features of sustainability. Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 311) present this “overview of key differences among dominant models of real-world learning formats”:

	Project-based learning	Service learning	Internship
Outcomes: what students learn/benefit	Collaborative problem-solving capacity	Education and teaching capacity	Professional working experience; career development
Practices: what students do	Collaborating with partners to develop solution approach	Educating people	Assisting or working on a professional project
Interaction with stakeholder	Two-way knowledge generation (co-production)	One-way knowledge transfer (students to community)	One-way knowledge transfer (employer to student and student to employer)
Integration of theory and practice	Explicit, supervised by faculty and stakeholder	Implicit, not supervised by faculty	Implicit, not supervised by faculty
Impacts on world	Systemic innovation	Support of social innovation and change	Modular innovation

Brundiers, K.; Wiek, A. & Redman C. L. 2010. Real-world learning opportunities in sustainability: from classroom into the real world. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 11 (4): 308-324.

The journal (IJSHE) is published by Emerald Group Publishing Limited in conjunction with Society of University Leaders for a Sustainable Future (ULSF).

Causes of the effectiveness of internships

Surprise is expressed about the apparent absence of clear evidence about the impact of internships, considering the extensive use thereof in higher education generally and business schools in particular. Narayanan—from Drexel University; Olk and Fukami—the University of Denver (2010: 62) found that “literature on internship experiences is largely descriptive and anecdotal”. They summarised 22 published studies between 1984 and 2003 and presented the following major findings in alphabetical order of citations:

• A consistent pattern of adjustment experienced by interns namely expectation, frustration and accommodation.
• Students have to adopt new ways to learn when moving from the university to the workplace, as well as learning new genres.
• An increase in internship programs had been observed (1997), with most programs fairly young; for credit only; occur during junior years; paid rather than unpaid; and require a written project. Many programmes neither have full- or part-time coordinators, nor require on-site visits. The responsibility for identifying internship sites are often share between students and others.
• The experience from internships is related to higher levels of self-concept crystallization. However, experiences are not related to increased occupational information, self-efficacy, decidedness, vocational commitment, or tendency to foreclose. Three characteristics of internships, namely task variety, feedback, and opportunities for dealing with people; linked significantly to self-concept crystallisation and self-efficacy, plus increased occupational information.
• Greater emphasis is placed by students on meaningful experiences to acquire a competitive edge in job market; than on furthering education.
• Academic assignments—seven proposed—can enhance the educational value of business internships.
• Internships increased in popularity because real-world experience enhances the prospects of employability. Within a context of increasing cost of education there is pressure that education would ensure employment.
• The value of internships is perceived to largely provide social and people skills; with limited improved academic skills.
• Learning in the workplace differs from learning in the classroom (academically).
• The socialisation of internship is complex and individualistic; comprising three phases (a) getting in, (b) breaking in, and (c) settling in.
• The perspectives of the three main internship players—namely programme directors/coordinators, industrial supervisors/mentors, and students—differed almost entirely. It is believed that the credibility of internships as learning experience would be enhanced by systemic procedures and standards.
• A notable difference between the perspectives companies and students is that higher ratings are assigned by students.
• Those students that did an internship compared favourably with regard to college performance; jobs offers; and age upon graduation. A racial predisposition, but no gender difference, had been identified.
• In-class exercises to facilitate socialization were reviewed and procedures suggested to facilitate such exercises.
• As result of internship experiences, students changed self-perceptions, preferences, some instrumental values, as well as work-specific needs.
• The use of structured power internship programmes to recruit, track and give a ready supply of the best college-age talent is described.
• Reporting what students like most/least about their internship position.
• Internships considered the most effective approach, according to business students and corporations to college recruitment. Suggestions made how companies can effectively implement internships
• Some support is given for more crystallisation of vocational self-concept and work values; as well as strong support for better employment opportunities. The level of ‘autonomy’ is a moderated outcome variable. In a second study students with internships were rated significantly higher by college recruiters.
• Contains discussion of issues of socialization, acculturation, motivation of student as employees, and the education-workplace relationships.
• The need to align institutional study to what is actually happening in the workplace: expectations need to be agreed upon and clear requirements are necessary.
• The specifics of certain communities of practice are embedded within and therefore not fully teachable.

Narayanan, V.K.; Olk, P.M. & Fukami, C.V. 2010. Determinants of Internship Effectiveness: An Exploratory Model. Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 9, No. 1, 61–80.

E-portfolios and assessment via mobile technologies

The South African Council for Higher Education (CHE) imperatives with regard to programme (qualification) accreditation include, among others:

• That the programme must bring about an understanding within students about the specifics of the occupation for which they are being trained.
• That the students should master the techniques and skills required for a specific profession or occupation.
• And where feasible that work-based learning and placement in a work-based environment should form an integral part of the curriculum.

The CHE imperatives with regard to work-integrated learning further include (1) a mentoring system that enables the student to recognise her/his strengths and weaknesses in his/her work, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices; as well as (2) regular and systematic monitoring. Mobile devices may well enable both these.

However, Coulby, Laxton, Boomer and Davies (2011) caution that without a sound pedagogical rationale for the use of mobile devices; technical and infrastructural realities may very possibly reduce student engagement.

Higher educational health and social care curricula often comprise a blend of classroom instruction (in residential education); simulations and work-based placement/s. The latter provide for learning opportunities and the assessment of competencies and professional attributes that cannot be cannot be replicated in the former two. The authentic nature of work-based placement/s enables holistic preparation; preparing graduates for professional practice, including the culture and practices of the particular community of practice. Primary care community clinics are utilised for placements in teaching. (Coulby, et al citing Billet, 2001; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Vygotsky, 1978).

Although work-based placements are regarded essential; Coulby, et al realise that these learning and teaching environments are challenged by practical and sometimes complex issues such as:

• Unreliable or restricted access to PCs and IT infrastructure; resulting in a lack of access to contemporary information; learning materials and social networks.
• Students experiencing uncertainty due to inadequate feedback on their performance resulting in unpreparedness; as well as insufficient monitoring, mentoring and tutoring (pastoral care) due to inadequate resources.

A potential solution explored is the ‘Assessment and Learning in Practical Settings’ (ALPS) programme, which employed mobile technologies. Common competencies, representing ‘readiness’ for professional practice were identified and developed into mobile assessment tools—which enable and encourage students to seek a spectrum of assessment opportunities such as from peers in the health and social care professions; from service users (patients); and self-reflection. The ‘ALPS’ assessments are completed are automatically captured online in e-portfolios; which in turn enable tutor and student review and commentary—in this way future practice of students are shaped and high-level scaffolding feasible. The University of Leeds, for example, has several hundred students in six different discipline/qualification cohorts.

Coulby, C; Laxton, J; Boomer, S & Davies, N. 2011. Mobile technology and assessment: A case study from the ALPS (Assessment and Learning in Practical Settings) programme, pp. 51-70. In N Pachler, C Pimmer & J Seipold (Eds). 2011. Work-based Mobile Learning — concepts and cases. Oxford: Peter Lang.

Rhizomatous propagation of Co-op & Work-integrated Ed support

Propagating involves the breeding of specimens by natural processes from the parent stock. Rhizomes are creeping plant rootstalks or rootstocks that send out shoots and roots from its nodes. The word rhizome originates from New Latin rhizoma, meaning a "mass of roots"; which stems from Ancient Greek rhizóō, meaning "cause to strike root"; and rhiza, meaning "a root".

Cooperative and Work-integrated Education qualifications/programmes are distinguished by two characteristics, namely:

• Credit bearing work-experience forms an important part/s of the curriculum that is aimed at producing work-ready graduates.
• The curriculum is designed in conjunction with, supported by, and retained relevant by representation from the occupational-field that the programme is intended for.

Good Cooperative and Work-integrated Education practice is characterised by:

• An appropriate advisory system ensuring the retained relevance of the programme through providing regular updating input and critique about the existing curriculum.
• Continuous propagating and cultivating activities to retain and expand a supportive occupational community which is vital for (a) providing real-life work experience opportunities; as well as (b) mentoring of students by workplace supervisors during period of experience; and (c) evaluative input about the competence acquisition of students for graduation purposes.

The metaphor (rhizomatous propagation) suggests:

• Starting of a new garden from good quality rhizomes (irises, cannas and asparagus) — curriculum design in close collaboration with the vocational community and/or professional/statutory body.
• Keep the programme flavour just right by cooking/brewing with good quality rhizomes (ginger, hops and turmeric) — frequently consult the community of practice.
• The underground rhizome is crucial to longevity — foragers, insects, fungus, and fires may attempt to damage the qualification (the above-ground portion of an aspen colony), but a supportive group of practitioners will keep the qualification healthy and protected against threats.
• Rhizomes send out internodes that form roots from the bottom of the nodes and new upward-growing shoots from the top of the nodes — the members of the programme’s advisory system are instrumental in expanding the network of supportive organisations.
• Similar to a rhizome, a stolon (e.g. strawberry plants) grow long internodes that generates new shoots at the end — active marketing interventions takes place to generate wider support.
• A rhizome (also stem tuber or enlarged stolon) serves as storage organ that is often high in starch (e.g. common potatoes) — enabling survival during winter or drought.
• The rhizomes of some species grow above ground, e.g. iris species lie at the soil surface; whereas other are underground, e.g. bamboo — some members of the community of practice render explicit support whereas the contributions of other are equivocal.
• Generally rhizomes form a single layer, but some form a multi-tiered mass — in some communities of practice a qualification may lead to a variety of career paths, whereas in other it is limited.

Work experience could lead to clear and realistic career ambitions and reducing 'NEET'

NEET means “not in education, employment or training”

To showcase new understanding of the value of work experience within the (UK school) education system; for young adults in particular; and how it can best be delivered the UK Commission for Employment and Skills; the Chartered Institute for Personal and Development (CIPD); and charity the Education and Employers Taskforce jointly held a special event on Thursday afternoon 19 April 2012 at Church House, Dean's Yard, Westminster, SW1P 3NZ.

The speakers on the topic ‘Work Experience: a new approach’ include:

• Brian Lightman—General Secretary, Association of School and College Leaders—said: "There is no doubt in my mind that work experience can make a significant difference to the motivation, attainment and progression of students. As a head teacher I have seen attitudes to school of many young people completely transformed as a result of their highly positive experience on a placement."
• James Wates, UKCES Commissioner and CEO Wates Construction
• Katerina Rudiger, Skills Policy Adviser, CIPD
• Dr Anthony Mann, Director of Policy and Research, Education and Employers Taskforce

Attendees would each have received a printed copy of the full research report Work Experience: Impact and Delivery – insights from the evidence and a copy of the “Employers and schools working together – employers perceptions” report.

Barnardo's Deputy Chief Executive, Jane Stacey, says: “It gives young people, particularly those from the most disadvantaged backgrounds, an invaluable opportunity to gain confidence and skills as they prepare to enter the toughest labour market since the 1980's.”

The UK Press Association reports that according to the study “there is a clear link between work experience at school and job prospects in later life”. The UK Press Association further reports that “a group of experts and policy makers have called for an increase in the quality and quantity of placements”.

The UK employment minister Chris Grayling, highlighted the different benefits of work experience, based on the report by the Education and Employers Taskforce charity and the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD). He also said: "I strongly support the concept of work experience because of the significant impact it can have on job prospects for young people through giving them an insight into the world of work, together with practical skills and knowledge based in a real world environment”.

A whopping 68% of teachers are of opinion that learners “returned from work experience more motivated to try harder at school”. Work placements helped 66% of learners to “how to go about achieving their career goals”.

In the light of the aforesaid it is of concern to note “that changes to work experience entitlement mean that many schools are considering moving away from organising work experience for some teenagers”. The changes are being driven by the UK government that is repealing the statutory requirement to work-related learning for 14-16 old learners resulting in schools having to bear the full costs of organising work-placements. Government is encouraging work experience for 16-19 year olds instead.

Nick Chambers, director of the Education and Employers Taskforce, states that traditionally more than ½million 15 year olds return after their Easter holidays intending to do two-weeks of work- placement with an employer.

Half (or a ¼million) of these placements are found by young people themselves or their families by making use of existing social networks. This may result in an unfair advantage to the children of well connected families. Relying on informal networks questions how children growing up in workless families are going to gain work experience, if the work experience depends on the family links with workplaces. “Those arguing for an improved system say they want to make sure work experience opens new doors rather than reinforces old divisions.” says Sean Coughlan, BBC News education correspondent. A more systematic approach, which does not rely on the networking skills of parents and friends, is argued for. If not, the potential value and benefits of work experience, among others in improving social mobility, can be lost.

Educationally effective work experience placements need proper planning and need to be matched to the needs of learners.

Employability and positional cultural capital

Brown, Hesketh and Williams (2003) present two contrasting theories prior to their own:

Consensus theory categorises societies according to their ‘stage’ of developed-‘ness’. Employability is marked by the degree of “democratisation of capitalism” and “employers are having to find new ways of attracting and retaining talent without the aid of bureaucratic careers” in advanced knowledge economies (p. 113).

Conflict theory portrays employability as “an attempt to legitimate unequal opportunities in education and the labour market at a time of growing income inequalities” (p. 114). Companies favour ‘plug-in-and-play’ hiring practices, rather than incurring expensive and intensive training, thereby shifting the responsibility of education and training onto the individual. Employability freed “employers from the moral or social obligations to employees” (p. 115).

Positional Conflict Theory comprises two elements, namely the rigging of the market and the ranking of the individual therein (p 116-9). It is no longer a matter of “of gaining credentials in order to climb bureaucratic career ladders, but of maintaining one’s employability, of keeping fit in both the internal and external markets for jobs through the acquisition of externally validated credentials, in-house training programmes, social contacts and networks” (p. 118). What matters is “how ‘the self’ is packaged by labour market entrants, and how prospective employers decode these personal qualities as indicators of productive potential” (ranking). However, “positional competition is not exclusive to individuals and social groups, because companies and universities are also engaged in positional power struggles that shape the life chances of contestants” (p. 119).

Brown et al (2003: 120) emphasise the importance of understanding “the nature of” and how it is perceived in the labour market as opposed to in education. They observe that cultural capital “may be deployed in the education system to facilitate academic success, but at the same time contradict changing models of organisational efficiency and leadership that place a high premium on ‘personal qualities’ rather than ‘academic abilities”. With regard to employability it needs to kept in mind that the recruitment process in ‘personalised’:

When employers reject candidates as unsuitable it could be argued that they are being rejected for lacking ‘cultural’ capital. There is absolutely no doubt that this happens when people are seen to have the wrong accent, dress inappropriately at an interview, or do not know the rules of the game when candidates are invited to a formal dinner to meet company employees.

Brown, P.; Hesketh, A. & Williams, S. 2003. Employability in a Knowledge Driven Economy. Journal of Education and Work, 16(2), June 2003, pp 107-126.

Employability depends on standing relative in hierarchy of jobseekers

Is Simon Roodhouse (2010: 25) remark cynical when he observes that a job-seeker’s understanding of the discipline or subject—which is a primary aim of university education—has little relevance to employability? What has relevance, however—citing Brown, Hesketh and Williams (2003), is on fulfilling the requirements of the specific job and “how one stands relative to others within a hierarchy of job seekers”. The latter in the current post-Apartheid South African context is further influenced by organisational corrective strategies with regard to the racial and gender mix of employees within departments.

Roodhouse (2010: 25) does add that higher education’s success in developing and delivering entry-to-work programmes is not doubted, neither higher education’s ability to qualifying people for work at higher levels doubted.

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (pp 21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

Brown, P.; Hesketh, A. & Williams, S. 2003. Employability in a Knowledge Driven Economy. Journal of Education and Work, 16(2), pp 107-126.