Learning in vivo

Clinical Learning Opportunites

Rather interesting, the South African Government Gazettes Nos 36234 and 36235 differ with regard to the definition of clinical learning opportunities. Both state it "means the range of learning experiences  ... available in a healthcare setting  ... other experiential learning sites ... a learner ... to gain the required clinical skills"; however:

• No 36234, referenced in the post about regulations pertaining to accreditation of nursing education institutions specify the range of learning experiences to include "work-integrated learning and service learning, available in a healthcare setting, which may also include other experiential learning sites where a learner has the opportunity ..."
• whereas No 36235, referenced in the post titled gazetted terminology for professional nurse and midwife education and training restrict the definition to "means the range of learning experiences  available in a healthcare setting or other experiential learning sites for a learner to gain the required clinical skills"

 Do these differences signify anything important or are they merely admistrative oversights?

DHET Learning Programme Regulations, 2012

The South African government notice, referenced below, conveys the Minister of Higher Education and Training intention to repeal the Learnership Regulations (published in Government Notice R 519 in Government Gazette No 30010 dated 29 June 2007) and makes available Learning Programme Regulations—under the Skills Development Act, 1998 (Act No. 97 of 1998)—for public comment a 30 day period that ended 5 August 2012.

The notice defines a "learning programme agreement" to mean an agreement as intended in the regulations. The notice further specifies and defines, among others, the following:

• Candidacy—meaning “the practical and work experience training that is an occupational qualification as determined by the relevant professional body and follows the completion of an academic qualification required for access to the assessment for the issuing of a professional designation. This learning must lead to the issuing of a designation registered on the NQF” (emphasis added).
• Internship—meaning “the structured work experience component of an occupational qualification registered by the” Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) as contemplated in Section 26G of the Skills Development Act.
• Learner—meaning “the learning party to a learning programme agreement, who is enrolled in a registered learning programme that has a curriculum registered with QCTO and includes [the] Iearner contemplated in both section 18( 1) and section 18(2 )of the Act” (emphasis added).
• Learnership—meaning “a learning programme that leads to an occupational qualification or part qualification and includes an apprenticeship and cadetship”
• Placement—meaning “a learner is placed in a workplace to complete part of an internship”
• Structured learning component—includes both “the knowledge and practical curriculum components of an occupational qualification” and the structured work experience component "means the workplace curriculum components of an occupational qualification” (emphasis added).
• Successful completion—meaning that “the Iearner has successfully completed the learning programme and has been declared competent”.
• Termination—means “the cancellation or dissolution of a learning programme agreement before one or more of the components of the learning programme agreement have been successfully completed”.
• Work integrated learning—“means a process that formally integrates a student's academic qualification or part qualification with work experience in participating employer organisations” (emphasis added).

The definitions quoted above are in need of some editing, because the way they are currently stated excludes—probably unintentionally—certain types, for example, the definition of a learner by implication excludes higher education qualifications.[The Directorate: SETA Support and Learnerships of the South African national Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) advised that the regulations are not finalized yet, the staff are still busy with the consolidation of public comments. As soon as the revised regulations are approved by the Minister, theywill then be publish in a gazette and also on the DHET website.]

Chapter 2 deals with the registration and management of learning programme agreements; chapter 3 with disputes; and chapter 4 with administrative provisions. Annexure A1 (pp. 12-20) reflects the full Learning Programme Agreement (excluding Skills Programmes) and annexure A2 the agreement for skills programmes.

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Department of Higher Education and Training. Government Gazette, Skills Development Act: Regulations: Learning Programme: Draft, (G 35489, General Notice 545), 5 July. Electronically available from http://www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=169917 and/or http://www.dhet.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=RY4DaZ62eQU%3d&tabid=346&mid=1415

Three modes of experiential education

The Best Practices for Legal Education (2007) publication of the Clinical Legal Education Association (CLEA) represents the fruit of 25 years of rich dialogue among American law teachers, lawyers, and judges, regarding the education of lawyers. In the foreword is stated that the American Bar Association convened a 1984 conference ‘Legal Education and the Profession: Approaching the 21st Century’. The foreword further states that in 1987 Justice Rosalie Wahl of the Minnesota Supreme Court and Chair of the ABA Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar rhetorically asked:

Have we really tried in law school to determine what skills, what attitudes, what character traits, what quality of mind are required of lawyers? Are we adequately educating students through the content and methodology of our present law school curriculums to perform effectively as lawyers after graduation?

The purpose of this elaborate prologue is to convey the credible nature of the three modes of experiential education identified in Chapter 5: Best Practices for Experiential Courses (pp 121 – 152, note that the page numbers of individual online chapters differ from the full publication) of the CLEA Best Practices for Legal Education (2007: 122), namely:

• In-house law clinics offering students opportunities to represent clients or perform other professional roles under the supervision of members of the faculty
• Externships — where students represent clients or perform other professional roles under the supervision of practicing lawyers or they observe or assist practicing lawyers or judges in their work
• Simulation-based courses granting students hypothetical situations to assume professional roles and perform law-related tasks

These three modes, although many different terms are used, are common in many disciplines, for example:

• Practicals, laboratory work, applied field experiences facilitated and managed by lecturers
• Work-integrated/experiential/work-based learning in the occupational field under supervision of an experienced practitioner
• Simulated learning providing experience in hypothetical situations

Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998: 244) address externships as a means for law students to obtain a credit “working in legal settings”. It is interesting to note that “in the United States, students may not receive financial compensation for work which warrants educational credit”. Brayne, Duncan and Grimes (1998) identify both advantages and disadvantages with regard to externships. Potential advantages include “lower costs, variety of opportunities, work experience, service to the community, and flexibility”. As far as disadvantages are concerned, the main one identified is the potential “lack of control over the quality of the educational experience”.

Brayne, H; Duncan, N & Grimes, R. 1998. Clinical legal education: active learning in your law school. London: Blackstone.

Stuckey, R & Others. 2007. Best Practices for Legal Education. United States: Clinical Legal Education Association. Retrieved 2 November 2011 from: http://www.cleaweb.org/best-practices -- note the hyperlink to the best practices blog at the bottom of the web page.

What are experiential programmes?

The Clinical Legal Education Association (CLEA) Best Practices for Legal Education (2007: 165, note that the page numbers of individual online chapters differ from the full publication) defines experiential programmes as those “rely on experiential education as a significant or primary method of instruction”. The experiences of students in the roles of lawyers, in simulations, as well as “their observations of practicing lawyers and judges” play an important role. The integration of theory and practice through “combining academic inquiry with actual experience” is regarded as experiential education.

Learning is not education, because learning happens as part of life through experiences, observations and eavesdropping. Education comprises learning opportunities that were designed; are managed; and may involve guided experience. Although law students may derive valuable learning experiences from part-time work experiences in legal settings, the CLEA Best Practices for Legal Education (2007: 165) argues cannot be regarded “experiential education because the learning in such environments is not necessarily accompanied by academic inquiry”.

Stuckey, R & Others. 2007. Best Practices for Legal Education. United States: Clinical Legal Education Association. Retrieved 2 November 2011 from: http://www.cleaweb.org/best-practices

Post-simulation reflection

Margaret Gredler (1992: 141 – 159) emphasises the role of post-simulation activities and the planning thereof. She asserts that simulations are experiential in nature in that participants “step into the assigned roles, accept the responsibilities and constraints and work through the problems and difficulties that arise in the execution of the roles”. To overcome the reality of can’t see the woods for the trees (because of active involvement in the simulation); bring the learning forth; and to maximise the learning; reflection about the simulation is essential.

Gredler (1992) discusses two experiential learning models, namely Kurt Lewin’s (a Gestalt theorist) group-dynamics model and Jean Piaget’s (a Swiss psychologist) cognitive development model.

Jaques (1985, referenced in Gredler) describes the adaptation of Lewin’s ideas in a five-part experiential learning cycle, which upon completion feeds into another cycle.

Piaget postulates that cognitive structures happens through two processes; namely by means of assimilation of new information into the existing to enrich; and by accommodating which can occur in two different ways. The one way of accommodation is modification in order to integrate new information; the other way is through reconstruction to a higher level of thinking.

Post-simulation reflection need to form part of and conclude the simulation. In a distance learning context, this could be achieved through online discussion.

Gredler, M. 1992. Designing and evaluating games and simulations, a process approach. London: Kogan Page.

Jaques, D. 1985. Debriefing, debriefing, 55 – 66. In M van Ments and K Hearndon (eds). Effective use of games and simulations. Loughborough: SAGSET, Loughborough Institute of Technology.

Semester in-industry learning industry affiliates model

The semester-in-industry model is, according to Edwards (2007) a characteristic of the Australian undergraduate engineering work-integrated learning industry affiliates program. Engineers Australia, the Australian engineering accrediting body, advocates that a key differentiating element of a professional engineering degree from an applied science degree is exposure through work-practice. The industry affiliates program entail students work on a joint industry-university supervised project during the first semester of the final year. Edwards (2007) summarizes the roles and responsibilities of the three partners to the industry affiliates program as follow:

• The industry partner provides the resources for the project; technical supervision for the student; and a suitable workplace for the student similar to that provided for commencing engineers. Industry partners are not expected to pay students.
• The aim is to integrate the student into the professional culture of organization. The student manages the project and adheres to the dress and attendance standards of the industry partner.
• The university selects suitable projects (in consultation with industry partners); help match students to projects; and provides academic supervision of students by visiting student in industry placement to ensure the meeting of requirements.

 The schedule of a typical industry affiliates program model is as follow (Edwards 2007):

October (of year before)	Briefing of students and preparation of CVs
November	List of project topics released and student apply
December to January	Students interviewed and selected for projects
February	Pre-industry workshops; agreements signed between industry partner and student; and student prepares project milestones
February to June	Industry experience by executing an assigned project and regular monitoring of project plan by industry and university
June	Exhibition of projects and submission of thesis

Work-integrated Learning (WiL) is a term used by many Australian universities and internationally to refer to activities that integrate the work (or industry) experience with formal studies. Edwards (2007) points out that it can take multiple forms, such as periods of work experience, internships, site visits, industry based projects, case studies using industry experience, having industry experts provide guest lectures, etc.

Edwards, D. 2007. Integrating Work Integrated Learning. Presented at the International Conference on Engineering Education – ICEE 2007, September 3 – 7, Coimbra, Portugal. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://www.ineer.org/Events/ICEE2007/papers/226.pdf   

Raw learning materials and learning tools

Sweitzer & King (2004:4-5) differentiates between classroom and internship learning with regard to two dimensions. I am adapting their description to distance education:

	Distance theoretical learning	Internship learning
The raw learning materials	Study guides, reading, tutorial letters, exercises, on-line discussions & tutorial sessions	Intellectual, physical and human experimental interactions—full of feelings and struggles. These emotions are not just a backdrop to the real-work experience, but every bit as real and important. Mastery of psyco-motor skills may also apply.
The learning tools	Memorise, analyse, synthesise and evaluate.	Experience must be processed and organised; reflective dialogue with self and others is a primary tool for learning; and relationships are the medium of internship.

Please note that Sweitzer & King (2004:3) use the internship to refer to a range terms of that entail an academic credit for experiences, for example field work/experience, cooperative/field education and practicum (terms they indicate no consensus exists on about the meaning).

Sweitzer & King (2004:6-7) further clarify the following terms (Download Sweitzer+King-terms):

• Placement or site—refers to the place where the student is working (gaining experience).
• Intern—refers to the student or volunteer who is working.
• Supervisor—person assigned by the placement site to mentor the student.
• Instructor—the academic staff member that oversees the student's placement.
• Coworker—refers to other people working at the placement.

Sweitzer, H.F. & King, M.A. 2004. The successful internship—transformation and empowerment in experiential learning, 2^nd edition. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole—Thompson Learning.

Commentary e-mailed by a peer:

"Thomas, my comments:

Perhaps consideration be given to differentiate between and internship and experiential learning/work integrated learning. Internship specifically refers to students after a qualification has been achieved, whilst experiential learning/WIL is while the student is busy with its qualification.

The principle of experiential learning applies to both however there might be a difference. I do recognize a difference since the one is part of a qualification and the students is perhaps less mature than a graduate (intern) who is more mature and is a graduate. Time is an important factor. Maturity in terms of cognitive, emotional, social skills  etc

Wrt internship, I would recommend the integration of the theories of learning which will explain many of the emotional, social and cognitive processes of the learner, in terms of EL/WIL which can be related to an intern as well.

Wrt Terminology:  

I prefer using a workstation instead of a placement site,

Instructor I am a bit uncomfortable with, I would rather use a term like a supervisor or mentor.

Hope this was of value Thomas!

Marius"

techne, episteme, poiesis, praxis & phronesis

Charles Sides and Ann Mrvica differentiates between five (5) very important Aristotelian concepts:

• techne - what people can do; a state of capacity to make; the rational method involved in producing an object or accomplishing a goal or objective
• episteme - a fixed set of information possessed by people; a system of understanding or a body of ideas which give shape to theoretical knowledge
• poiesis - means 'to make'; it is an action that transforms; it refers to 'bringing-forth'; a threshold occasion: a moment of ecstasis when something/s becomes another
• praxis - a practice (as distinguished from theory); application of skill; conduct in a public space considered as excellence
• phronesis - the capability to consider the mode of action in order to deliver change, especially to enhance the quality of life; some believe it includes the ability to reflect upon; it is practical wisdom, knowledge of the proper ends of life, in contrast to sophia - involving wisdom concerning universal truths; science

Sides and Mrvica believes that internships - as form of learning - are pursuing techne, poiesis and praxis (pp. v & 1-2). Through internships knowledge communities are sustained. When deliberating about evaluation of internship, they add the term phronesis (pp. 95-98).

I found this differentiation extremely valuable.

Sides CH. & Mrvica A. 2007. Internships, theory and practice. New York: Baywood.

Spaces of learning

Spaces of learning (pp 105-6, 175-180, 184, & 191-5)

— notes from Illeris, K. 2002. The three dimensions of learning. Malabar, Fla: Krieger

Everyday learning, tacit knowledge and informal learning

Life occurs simultaneously in several spaces, with different rationales that do not necessary have any connection — everyday consciousness (a notion that everyday life has become fragmented and impoverished as result of the dominance of economic pressures and rationality). Everyday living consists of a long succession of separated situations, each with its own purpose, with the only commonality time-structure — ruled by the clock. Parallel hereto is everyday learning, namely learning that occurs informally and by chance, within the various spaces, while occupied with getting everything to function and grasping it more-or-less. There is a continuous flood of impulses and impressions that requires various ways of navigating and relating. Michael Polanyi called it tacit learning leading to tacit knowledge.

Jean Lave and Patricia Greenfield characterised informal learning by these points:

·         embedded in the activities of daily life

·         the responsibility for acquiring the skill and knowledge rests with the learner

·         others, that one encounter, serve as appropriate teachers

·         absence of an explicit pedagogy and curriculum

·         continuity and tradition are valued

·         learning occurs through observation and imitation

·         teaching happens through demonstration

·         social engagement by novices and participation in the adult sphere serve as motivation

Practice learning in a community of practice

Practice learning refers to goal-directed learning similar to the old master-apprentice relationship; to short-term trainee arrangements as part of professional training courses; as well as to induction periods after theoretical training, when beginning a professional career. A concept legitimate peripheral participation means learning through participation in a community of practice—it is generally accepted that learners start in a peripheral position and gradually learn cognitively, emotionally and socially. This growth ultimately results in full membership of a community.

Institutional learning

A fundamental motif of capitalist society is the provision of qualified workers by the state. Commerce and industry mainly take on training activities related to their own particular needs. Society further require of new generations to substantially socialise together, which takes place under auspices of the state.

Learning at work, organisational learning and ‘the learning organisation’

The workplace, as learning space, has attracted in recent years substantial attention—this applies to the opportunities of employees to learn and gain qualifications at work or in connection with work.

Aleksei Leontjev theorised that when people labour psychological structures emerge within the persons working, this imitates the structural nature of the work. The more complex the work, the more advanced the psychological structure. The human psyche further regulates the individual’s actions. When work is freed from repressive structures it frees up personality-development opportunities.

Chris Argyris and Donald Schön organisational learning to indicate the learning in organisations, meaning it takes place in or is connected to organisations—typically large private enterprise. Learning in organisations is influenced by the nature and goals of the specific enterprise, which includes profit making, competition, developing and marketing products (or services), and providing a workplace for employees. However, rigid routines do get in the way of learning. The learning organisation is defined by Peter Senge as an organisation where people continually make bigger the capacity to create the results that they desire; a workplace where new and unrestrained thinking patterns are nurtured; where aspirations are unrestrained and people learn to learn collectively.

Promoting the notion of cross-pollinating theories and practice

It has been an enriching experience to have attended the Unisa Teacher Education at a Distance conference the past week. Attached (Download Dr_T_Groenewald-Quality_in_vivo_learning.ppt) please find my personal presentation at the conference.

A number of issues stood out to me, worth capturing for further exploration:

• Graduates enter work and are confronted by unscripted stuff, they often sink or swim. Curriculum design should contemplate the kinds of problems graduate are likely to be confronted with and concentrate on equipping students to deal with these.
• Indigenous knowledge should not be dismissed, there is much to learn; but should not be exploited either, without rewarding the knowledge carriers/holders fairly.
• We must be careful with what lens we approach things, there are many other viewpoint also!
• Learning in vivo should, like most learning, be staggered.
• Practice is merely an activity, whereas participation is about learning derived from active experience (Do not dismiss this idea as just playing with words).

There were many other inspiring ideas contained in presentations that are  specific to teacher education. One such idea is the process of lesson study: teachers gather to critique a teacher's lecture and all learn from it. The emphasis here is on continued professional development. It certainly has application possibilities in many other occupational/professional fields. The idea of subjecting yourself, your practice to scrutiny of other; as well as partaking in constructive critique of peers. 

Experiential, Practical & Propositional Knowledge

Although everybody learns from experience, nobody always learns from experience. Most at times repeat some mistakes, despite bad experiences. Burnard (1996) expresses surprises about how often he 'learned' the really important things in his life through experiences that he found interesting or important. It may therefore be assumed that for learning in vivo to achieve its desired objectives, the facilitator should make it to matter.

Learning from the mistakes of others is called vicarious learning by Burnard (1996). The experiences of other may make such an impression that we derive learning from it.

Burnard (1996) observes that all definitions of learning experientially have in common the first-person, living human being, taking note of what happens to apply to new situations in future.

Experiential learning is not just about learning from doing (or the observing of the experiences of other, as indicated above), it is also about deriving learning from reflecting. Burnard (1996) emphasise the latter, rather than just acting and possibly forfeiting the learning opportunity. To optimise structured in vivo learning, it appears that the facilitator should therefore 'build in' reflection, i.e. ensure 'noticing'.

Burnard (1996) emphasises the issue of reflection. People often proceed through life only half conscious, on 'auto pilot'. People often do not register what they are experiencing. Burnard emphasise the importance of 'mindfulness'. In the contemporary world of continuous change and coping with demands, people need to consciously pursue mindfulness (simply means to pay attention — to your body, to your mind, to your surroundings, to the people in your life, to the tasks you undertake).

Burnard identifies three types of knowledge, illustrated below, which are not independent, but supportive of each other.

Flowing from the above, Burnard (p. 9) redefines experiential learning as "any learning activity that enhances the development of experiential knowledge".

Burnard refers further to Paulo Freire's (1972) concept "praxis", which includes both reflection as well as action-on-the-world. Praxis implies transforming, which is one of the human's distinguishing features. Burnard also refers to George Kelly's (1955) notion of people going through life applying a modified scientific process, i.e. hypothesising about matters, observing reality and modifying of our hypotheses based on our findings.

Burnard, P. 1996. Acquiring interpersonal skills - a handbook of experiential learning for health professionals. 2nd edition. London: Chapman & Hall.

More to learning-in-experience than 'slave' of the global market machinery

I grew up in a 'good' Calvinistic environment, did obligatory national service, complete university studies and started my career with a post-graduate internship. I never questioned the 'primary purpose' of experiential learning as being to prepare people for profit making service and to keep people current as human capital. Tara Fenwick's monograph on a theoretical critique of experiential learning from five perspectives literally pulled the carpet out from under my beliefs. I am grateful!

The five perspectives (with Fenwick's descriptive titles in brackets) are:

• Constructivism
• Psychoanalytical (interference)
• Situative (participation)
• Critical cultural (resistance)
• Enactivist (co-emergence)

This post expands on another (http://psychsoma.co.za/learning_in_vivo/2008/08/a-brief-theoret.html) on the theory of learning from experience.

1. Constructivism

Meaning is constructed from reflecting on lived experiences, which is then interpreted and generalised. This acquired knowledge is stored in memory and transferred to future situations. The construction oscillates between assimilation (new knowledge constructs incorporated) and accommodation (altering of existing constructs when new experiences contradicts past knowledge).

David Boud asserts that preparation enhanced the learning; similarly do noticing and intervening of the participants actual experience; also the recalling and re-evaluation of the experience; as well as attending to the feelings provoked by the experience. The recalling and re-evaluation occur through four processes: association (relating to the familiar), integration (seeking connections), appropriation (making new knowledge your own) and validation (determine the authenticity).

Donald Schön emphasised workplace learning by dealing with problems, by noticing them and framing them, then enquiring and experimenting with solutions. Sometimes people reflect-in-action by improvising on-the-spot to resolve problems. Other times people reflect-on-action in a time zone after encountering the problem.

Jack Mezirow introduced transformative learning (one of the most influential ideas about adult learning that emerged in the past 20 years). Reflection is triggered when a problem, a disorientating dilemma, is encountered for which no ready solution is available. When the deep-seated beliefs or premises are questioned, critical reflection happens. When the taken-for-granted assumptions are challenged and result in dramatic shift then transformation occur.

In constructivism the educator's role vary between facilitator, instigator, coach and assessor.

2. Psychoanalytical (interference)

This perspective opens different ways of approaching the unconscious; Resistance to knowledge; a desire for mastery and closure; etc. Knowledge dilemmas are experienced within, as result of struggles between the unconscious and conscious, which result in anxiety that generates resistance to knowledge. The person (as a split) doing the experiencing has three registers with which her/his psychic world meets the external world, namely: the imaginary (childhood understanding of the self as undifferentiated from the mother and a desire to complete her); the symbolic (language and cultural issues); and the real (a sense of shortcoming, which cannot be understood by the conscious). People learn by working through the conflicts of psychic events. Experiential learning tolerates one's conflicting desires and grants the recovering from the terror of self-knowledge. Learning is about experimenting and willingly engaging in traumas of the self.

3. Situative (participation)

The learning is routed in the situation (knowledge flows in the action) wherein the experience occurs. The engaging in changing the human processes of a community defines the knowing and learning. Individuals learn by interacting with their community. The objective is not mere learning about, but to become a full participant in the community of practice, by experiencing (learning in it) at the margins (observation, try out and interacting in a small way) and gradually getting integrated into the full network. Learning is embedded and transformed when applied elsewhere.

4. Critical cultural (resistance)

Inevitably there are competing power and cultural relations present in any human system. When the mechanisms of power are identified, Resistance appear, which in turn can open people to unexpected, unimagined possibilities for growth and development. Learning is shaped by the discourses and semiotics (signs, codes and texts) of a particular cultural space. There are often dualistic categories (e.g. opposite genders, etc) representing unequal distribution of authority and resources. The labels assigned can legitimise, depersonalise or exclude, Discourses contain both winners and losers. Learning happens informally and incidentally, during everyday life. Some of the most distinguished learning (emancipatory experiential learning) occurs during struggle against some form of oppression, by trying to make sense of what is happening and how to fight/overcome it. The learning demystifies authority, give insight in different perspectives and if reconciliation is feasible.

5. Enactivist (co-emergence)

Here cognition and the simultaneous enactment of the environment, through experiential learning, is explored. Person and context are inseparable and change occur, as result of tinkering intentionally or unintentionally, from emerging systems. By participating (embedded in conduct), a person learns to participate more effectively. Tacit knowledge unfolds in circumstances that evoked the actions. Learning is a continuous exploration and invention. There is no absolute standard, adequate conduct is determined by what action serves the particular circumstances. The roles of educators might include communicator (helping to name what is unfolding), story-maker (help recording and tracing interactions), and interpreter ( help making sense of the patterns emerging).

Fenwick asserts that 'experiential learning' need to be continually unravelled and challenged. The premises and baggage associated must be questioned. We must question our personal motives and intentions with experiential learning.

Reference:

Fenwick,  T.J. 2001. Experiential learning: a theoretical critique from five perspectives. Electronically available at:   http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED454418&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED454418

The powerless/disadvantaged granted less credit(s)?

Susan Warner Weil and Ian McGill are well know for their 'four villages' metaphor concerning experiential learning:

1. Accreditation of learning that has been derived from experience (or RPL: recognition of prior learning) for granting credit at entry level. Reflection in this 'village' is about the recording of learning and assessment thereof. Also known as APEL: assessment of prior experience and learning; or PLA: prior learning assessment.
2. Challenging or complimenting the curriculum of higher and continuing education in that educators help learners reflect on their life experiences to unveil their concealed knowledge.
3. The third 'village' is about social change. Educators enable learners to transcend their limits and become aware of broader sociocultural dynamics.
4. This 'village' is about individual self-development for personal growth.

This post is focusing on aspects of the first 'village'. The first known RPL/APEL/PLA took place in 1946 in the United States when World War II veterans returned home and wanted their experience accredited to gain university entrance.

RPL/APEL/PLA is about learners seeking academic credits for life experiences or recognition of life experiences in order that learners do not have to repeat courses on areas of knowledge they already acquired. However, it is sometimes very difficult to articulate or demonstrate life experiences.

Institutions often limit applicants to organise their experiences according to only those competencies and concepts the institution decided are of value. Rich experiences of applicants might be excluded as result. The situation is compounded due to the excessive power of institutions, resulting in easily domineering the knowledge boundaries and the regulating of the particular hierarchical fit of the experience and/or the category the experience is deemed worthy. The experience of people are colonised by squeezing them into predetermined categories.

There is further the potential discrepancy between rich and unique personal experience versus what counts in terms of public discourse. Applicants may be compelled to construct their diverse selves to fit the recognised AP(E)L dimensions. Social inequalities are not accommodated. People from disadvantaged backgrounds often experience substantial opportunity barriers. Those with unusual life stories often find that their varied experiences and shifting identities are penalised.

A reading of Fenwick,  T.J. 2001. Experiential learning: a theoretical critique from five perspectives. prompted this post. Electronically available at:   http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED454418&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED454418

Learning is not necessary derived from placements in work settings

Freeland, a university executive, Marini, a company executive, and Weighart, a co-operative education practitioner (1998, pp. 17, 20-24 & 26), and various others mentioned several factors that emphasise the integration of tuition and learning from work, community service or other experiences in student-centred, practice-orientated co-operative education:

• Hamilton and Hamilton (1997a, p. 676; 1997b, p. 682) asserted that to merely place people in work settings (hoping they will learn) does not guarantee that learning will take place. Students are not passive recipients, but co-participants (Greene, 1998, p. 411). In this regard Petherbridge (1996, p. 249) remarked that going on work experience is mistaken for a complete learning activity, which it is most certainly not.
• The creation of a learning culture that encourages synergy between workplace (experiential learning) and the academic component is important — both employers and education providers must make significant contributions (Dar-chin, 1998, p. 83; Bisschoff, 1997, p. 54). Pretorius (1996, p. 125) asserted that nothing may be done in isolation, co-operation and liaison became essential.
• The experiential learning curriculum or syllabus (part of course credits) and the specified learning objectives or the outcomes sequenced in such a way to progressive deepen the understanding of students — preferably real projects/assignments with real life implications (Apostolides & Looye, 1997, p. 18; Hamilton & Hamilton, 1997b, p. 683; Bisschoff, 1997, p. 54).
• The process of [a] preparation (planning and pre-placement briefing or training), [b] experience itself and [c] facilitation of reflection (not superficial debriefing) to optimise the learning — the integration occurs in the student's mind, but it should not be assumed that the student will necessary piece it together. Schaafsma (1996, p. 92) saw it as a spiral process. Petherbridge (1996, p. 243) urged that debriefing is central to the success of experience-based learning — not interviewing, but enabling students to make sense and optimise their learning through reflecting. Debriefing is a vital stage in the integration of work experience into the curriculum. It is the beginning of the learning not the end thereof.
• If paid experiential learning is not available a community service or a not-for-profit work station presents not only an excellent alternative, but also provide good citizenship education in an environment of declining government resources (Deruosi & Sherwood, 1997, pp. 46-47, 49 & 53; Hamilton & Hamilton, 1997a, p. 678).

References

Apostolides, V. & Looye, J.W. (1997). Student assessment of the co-op experience and optimum integration of classroom learning with professional practice. Journal of Cooperative Education, XXXII(3), 16-30.

Bisschoff, T. (1997). The role of co-operative education in the relationship between education and the economy. South African Journal of Education, 17(2), 53-55.

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Finn, K.L. (1997). The spaces between: towards a new paradigm for cooperative education. Journal of Cooperative Education, XXXII(2), 36-45.

Freeland, R.M., Marini, R.C. & Weighart, S. (1998). Moving partnerships between co-op institutions and co-op employers into the next century. Journal of Cooperative Education, XXXIII(2), 17-27.

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Schaafsma, H. (1996). Reflections of a visiting co-op practitioner a view of co-op from down under. Journal of Cooperative Education, XXXI(2), 83-100

The meanings of experience

An attempt to define experiential learning is complicated by, among other things, the preoccupation of philosophers with ‘experience’. The word 'experience' not only contains many ambiguities, but also acts both as noun and verb (Boud, Cohen and Walker, 1993). As verb, ‘experience’ could either be a particular instance or a process of observing (detached), but also to undergoing (passive) or encountering (interactive). As noun, ‘experience’ implies the knowing derived from observing, undergoing or encountering, the knowledge or practical wisdom gained.

The term ‘experience’ is further used in a number of ways, with a multitude of meanings, such as something direct, a feeling, knowledge, an external phenomenon’s impact, life history and an emotional moment (Jarvis, Holford and Griffin, 2003). All of these meanings refer to something subjective. “Experience, then, is being caught up in the flow of time” (p. 54), some experience is lifelong and other episodic. According to John Dewey (in Mailick & Stumph, 1998) learning is a three-phase process, with experience as the start, followed by review and generalising of the experience, which is then tested in practice. Subsequent experience starts a new learning cycle, which is never the same, because both the experience and the conditions are different. There is further interdependence between ‘experiencing’ and ‘what is experienced’; the one cannot be severed from the other. The learner is furthermore an important part of the experience that enriches it with her or his personal contribution (Boud, Cohen and Walker, 1993). They assert that experience is a meaningful encounter, not just an observation, or a passive undergoing, but an active engagement with the context. Mailick and Stumph (1998), based on Dewey, point out that learning is the result of the transaction between the experience of the individual and the venue of learning. Jarvis, Holford and Griffin indicate that there are many variations on the concept of experience and suggested six:

Primary - Experience by any or all of the senses within a social context of certain aspects of that context

Secondary - A mediated experience, which has little or nothing to do with the context within which it occurs, for example a discussion, presentation or show

Actual - An experience that occurs at the present time

Recalled - The process of recalling memories from previous actual experiences

Real - An experience within the actual context

Artificial - A creation from an experience, which highlights some aspects of the real or actual experience

Boud, Cohen and Walker (1993, pp. 8-16) on the other hand present five propositions about learning from experience:

• Experience is the foundation of, and the stimulus for, learning.
• Learners actively construct their experience.
• Learning is a holistic process.
• Learning is socially and culturally constructed.

• Learning is influenced by the socio-emotional context in which it occurs.

Boud, D., Cohen, R. & Walker, D. (eds.) 1993. Using experience for learning. Buckingham: Society for Research into Higher education & Open University Press.

Jarvis, P., Holford, J. & Griffin, C. 2003. The theory and practice of learning. 2nd edition. London: Kogan Page.

Mailick, S. & Stumpf, S.A. 1998. Learning theory in the practice of management development. Westport, Connecticut: Quurum

Vivo is derived from the Latin vivus, meaning living. In vivo is in the living organism, as opposed to in vitro which is outside of the organism. Often, in vitro (laboratory or simulated environment) learning precedes the in vivo learning.

in vivo, noun [pronounced: in vee-voh]

      occurring or made to occur within a natural [or real-life] setting or living organism [organisations seen as such]; literally, “in life”, in vivo conditions are distinguished from those that might exist only in a laboratory; in a real-life situation <observing a patient's behaviour in vivo>

      adjective: within a living organism; "in vivo techniques" [learning derived from the real-life experience]

      adverb: in the living organism; "studies conducted in vivo" [experience within a real-life]

Tesch (1990) explains that language is both a means of communication and manifestation of culture. Different sub-cultures have different systems of terms that are shared among the members who attach specific meaning to those terms. Rhetoric, Morton-Cooper and Palmer (2000) argue, refers to the concepts and language that are used to influence and persuade people. Rhetoric is useful to indicate the underlying values and assumptions of the actions and motivations of groupings of people. Examining the rhetoric help people account for what they do and why they do it. This blog reviews the use of terms associated with learning from experiences and the rich rhetoric of different sub-cultures.

For example, clinical training is common practice in medical education. The word clinical literally means “at the bed-side”. It is derived from the Greek word klinikos, which means bed. Clinical training then implies training at the bedside. Other terms that are often used include residency, clinical practice and/or rotations, supervision, clinical accompaniment, precepting, elective, field work practice, etc.

Morton-Cooper, A. & Palmer, A. 2000. Mentoring, preceptorship and clinical supervision: a guide to professional roles in clinical practice. 2nd edition. London: Blackwell Science.

Tesch, R. 1990. Qualitative research: analysis types and software tools. New York: Falmer.

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