Learning in vivo

Real-world learning opportunities help students increase their understanding

Real-world learning complement the methodological competence of students in applying problem-solving approaches, say Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010). Real-world learning affords students opportunities to critically reflect on, to negotiate and collaborate with academic supervisors and community project partners. Students get the opportunity to turn intellectual concepts and methods into personal practical ability. Learning from addressing real-world sustainability problems exposes students to “where the rubber hits the road”, according to Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 311). Students learn from the development of sustainability strategies and projects, within the context of real-life politics, culture, traditions, and existing processes. Real-world scenarios force students to explore and identify accountability; to hold the relevant people accountable; and to accept own accountability with respect to the real-world sustainability project agreement.

Although students are likely to develop key competencies in sustainability from real-world learning opportunities; the key competencies which students need to develop must be made known’ Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 313) caution that “the devil is in the details”. The design and implementation of the real-world learning determines the nature and scope of the experience. The “functional and progressive” model of integrating real-world learning into the curriculum comprises a number of loosely structured real-world learning experiences in preparation for the capstone experience. This is illustrated by Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 314) in Figure 1 below. The real-world learning is spread over four years. Three factors shape the nature of the learning, namely (1) the role of the instructors to design and facilitate; (2) the level of interaction of students with the partners in the community project; and (3) the different forms of collaboration. There is linear progression. Figure 2 illustrates the capstone module in more detail and Figure 3 indicates how the capstone-module option may help students develop certain key competencies but not necessary all/others.

Brundiers, K.; Wiek, A. & Redman C. L. 2010. Real-world learning opportunities in sustainability: from classroom into the real world. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 11 (4): 308-324.

Sustainability as emerging academic field challenges what is taught and how

If higher education graduates are to cope with society’s sustainability-challenges, universities must provide students with interactive, experiential, transformative, and real-world learning to suitably prepare them; say Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010). The authors undertook a synthesis of literature on sustainability education (an emerging academic field) with the view of determining how real-world learning can contribute to building key competencies in sustainability. Consensus exists that the capacity-uilding pathways of sustainability education should engage the “head, hands, and heart”.

Sustainability education is concerned with complex non-linear problems with long-term implications; that cut across economic, social, and environmental domains; not just on local but global scales; and involve high degrees of damage potential; and therefore urgency. These often manifest as a conglomerate of problems that require sophisticated “post-normal” solutions and elaborate problem-solving techniques; that challenges basic assumptions; and call for systems-thinking, anticipation, and participatory strategy-building models across established disciplines.

Key competencies in sustainability cannot be acquired by being told about sustainable development. Students need to see and work within a living learning place. They need to experience what a sustainable lifestyle means. Learning must focus on real-world problems, exposing students to corresponding real-world settings. A variety of learning models might be considered, for example project- and/or problem-based learning; service learning; and internships. However, not all real-world learning opportunities are appropriate. Some are more appropriate for extracurricular activities; whereas others do not relate well to the key features of sustainability. Brundiers, Wiek and Redman (2010: 311) present this “overview of key differences among dominant models of real-world learning formats”:

	Project-based learning	Service learning	Internship
Outcomes: what students learn/benefit	Collaborative problem-solving capacity	Education and teaching capacity	Professional working experience; career development
Practices: what students do	Collaborating with partners to develop solution approach	Educating people	Assisting or working on a professional project
Interaction with stakeholder	Two-way knowledge generation (co-production)	One-way knowledge transfer (students to community)	One-way knowledge transfer (employer to student and student to employer)
Integration of theory and practice	Explicit, supervised by faculty and stakeholder	Implicit, not supervised by faculty	Implicit, not supervised by faculty
Impacts on world	Systemic innovation	Support of social innovation and change	Modular innovation

Brundiers, K.; Wiek, A. & Redman C. L. 2010. Real-world learning opportunities in sustainability: from classroom into the real world. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 11 (4): 308-324.

The journal (IJSHE) is published by Emerald Group Publishing Limited in conjunction with Society of University Leaders for a Sustainable Future (ULSF).

The ‘UFOs’ of discretionary grants for work-integrated learning

OFO is not an obscure/unidentified flying object. OFO Code appears repeatedly in the templates for mandatory and discretionary grant funding for skills development, contained in Annexure 2 (public) and 3 (private) of the SETA Grant Regulations. In order to access funding for enabling work-integrated learning (WIL) a legal person must complete and submit a PIVOTAL training plan and report as, per sections E & F (pp. 22-23) or sections G & H (pp. 30-31) respectively, and as per published timeframes to the relevant SETA/s.

OFO stand for Organising Framework for Occupations <Download OFO Version 2013>. It is stated in the OFO Guidelines (DHET 2013: 4) that it is in essence a coded occupational classification system and a key tool of the Department of Higher Education and Training for identifying, reporting and monitoring skills demand and supply in the South African labour market. It is therefore important for academics at higher education institutions to be capable to make use of the OFO.

The 2013 OFO has been in the making since 2004. The classification units are jobs (occupations on the OFO). The classification variable is the nature of work done (tasks and duties). The identification classifications criteria include two dimensions of skill, i.e. skill level and skill specialisation. The following definitions (DHET 2013: 6-7) apply:

• A job is a set of tasks and duties carried out or meant to be carried out, by one person for a particular employer, including self-employment.
• An occupation is a set of jobs whose main tasks and duties are characterised by a high degree of similarity (skill specialisation).
• Skill is defined as the ability to carry out the tasks and duties of a given job.
• Skill level is defined as a function of the complexity and range of tasks and duties to be performed in an occupation. Skill level [four] is measured operationally by considering the nature (e.g. complexity and range) of the work performed and/or level of formal education and/or amount of informal on-the-job training (including experience needed).
• Skill specialisation is considered in terms of four conceptual concepts, namely the field of knowledge required; the tools and machinery used; the materials worked on or with; and the kinds of goods and services produced.

The OFO structure involves grouping of occupations into eight (8) Major groups—single (1) digit, Sub-Major—two (2) digits, Minor—three (3) digits, Unit—four (4) digits, and occupations—six (6) digits. Higher education is concerned with the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) levels 5 to 10, which equate to the upper-part of the OFO skill-level 2 through to 4. The top three major groups of the OFO therefore relate to the skills development contribution of higher education, namely (1) Managers, (2) Professionals, and (3) Technicians and Associate Professionals. Some undergraduate qualifications may further relate to higher education’s skills development contribution towards the next four major groups of the OFO, namely (4) Clerical Support Workers; (5) Service and Sales Workers; (6) Skilled Agricultural, Forestry, Fishery, Craft and Related Trades Workers; and (7) Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers. In order to enable the access of discretionary grants for the work-integrated learning PIVOTAL programmes, a working knowledge of the OFO—in particular identification of the relevant OFO Codes—is therefore important.

The Classification of Education Subject Matter (CESM) of the DHET is structurally similar to the OFO. The CESM (DHET 2008: 1) is not concerned with academic programmes; instead CESM confines itself to the various knowledge components (courses or often called modules) which appear within such academic programmes. CESM comprises 20 Educational Fields—denoted by two (2) digits “first order designations[, which] are intended to be representative of major categories for classifying knowledge.” Each field is subdivided into a number of sub-fields (a total of 239 denoted by four digits) and each subdivided into subjects (denoted by six digits). “Second order and third order categories are considered to be natural subdivisions of the major subject matter areas. The hierarchy level of a specific area of study should not be seen as a judgement of the relative importance of that area of study in the South African higher education system.” (DHET 2008: 4) The reason for CEMS is that universities tend to use both unique titles for their offerings and have unique academic management structures. In order to ensure uniformity of annual data returns the Higher Education Management Information System (HEMIS). For the Unit—four (4) digits of the OFO, the most appropriate CESM codes were linked—at two (2) digits (where the overlap is too big) or four (4) digits—refer to DHET (2013: 17). This is of particular importance for career guidance purposes.

New green occupations (reflected as “scarce skills”) were added to the 2013 OFO version to support the “initiatives of reducing negative environmental impact and contribute sustainably to environmental, economical and social sensitive enterprises and economies” DHET (2013: 14). Provision had further been made for new skill sets (reflected as “critical skills”) in existing occupations in order to support initiatives. A total of 96 occupations are considered green and identified with a green-earth symbol on the OFO. A further “51 occupations and 17 specialisations were identified as requiring “Critical Green Skills” and can be recognised” by a two-green-circular-arrows symbol on the OFO (DHET 2013: 15).

Republic of South Africa. 2008. Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). Classification of Education Subject Matter (CESM) August 2008. <Download CESM classification of educational subject matter> Electronically accessible from: http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=5PLnoxrqLLU%3D&tabid=95&mid=507

Republic of South Africa. 2013. Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). Guidelines: Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) 2013. <Download OFO Guideline - 2013> Electronically accessible from: http://www.dhet.gov.za/Documents/Publications/tabid/93/Default.aspx

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Skills Development Act (97/1998). The Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) grant regulations regarding monies received by a SETA and related matters. Government Gazette Vol. 570; Regulation Gazette No 9867; Government Notice No R990; Gazette No 35940; 3 December 2012. The Government Printing Works. Electronically accessed from http://www.info.gov.za/view/DynamicAction?pageid=623&myID=361326

Gazetted Terminology for Professional Nurse and Midwife Education and Training

The terminology for cooperative and work-integrated education within the South African nursing education and training sphere is worth noting. It is gazetted that the Minister of Health, after consultation of the South African Nursing Council (SANC)—a statutory body—in accordance to §58(1)(f) of the Nursing Act (Act No 33 of 1995); made regulations pertaining to the education and training of professional nurses and midwives.

Of specific interest are the definitions of:

• Clinical accompaniment, which “means a structured process by a nurse education institution to facilitate assistance and support to the learner by the nurse educator at the clinical facility to ensure the achievement of the programme outcomes;”
• Clinical facility, which “means a continuum of services to promote health and provide care to individuals and groups, used to teach learners;”
• Clinical learning opportunities, which “means the range of learning experiences available in a healthcare setting or other experiential learning sites for a learner to gain the required clinical skills;”
• Clinical placement, which “means the period spent by a learner in clinical and other experiential learning sites to ensure that the purpose of the programme is achieved;”
• Clinical supervision, which “means the assistance and support extended to the learner by the professional nurse or midwife at a clinical facility with an aim of developing a competent, independent practitioner;”

The gazetted regulations further includes several other definitions of terminology such as assessment / assessment method / integrated assessment / assessor / moderation / moderator; competence / learning outcomes / programme outcomes; comprehensive nursing; fundamental learning; programme / qualification; and recognition of prior learning. The regulations further deal with issues such as requirements for registration in the two said nursing categories; accreditation of education institutions; admission criteria; minimum programme requirements; clinical education and training; the assessment and moderation of learning outcomes; transfers; recognition of prior learning; application of these regulations, as well as transitional arrangements.

Nursing Act: Regulations: Approval of and minimum requirements for education and training of learners leading to registration in categories professional nurse and midwife, (G 36235, RG 9927, GoN 174), 8 March 2013

DHET Learning Programme Regulations, 2012

The South African government notice, referenced below, conveys the Minister of Higher Education and Training intention to repeal the Learnership Regulations (published in Government Notice R 519 in Government Gazette No 30010 dated 29 June 2007) and makes available Learning Programme Regulations—under the Skills Development Act, 1998 (Act No. 97 of 1998)—for public comment a 30 day period that ended 5 August 2012.

The notice defines a "learning programme agreement" to mean an agreement as intended in the regulations. The notice further specifies and defines, among others, the following:

• Candidacy—meaning “the practical and work experience training that is an occupational qualification as determined by the relevant professional body and follows the completion of an academic qualification required for access to the assessment for the issuing of a professional designation. This learning must lead to the issuing of a designation registered on the NQF” (emphasis added).
• Internship—meaning “the structured work experience component of an occupational qualification registered by the” Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO) as contemplated in Section 26G of the Skills Development Act.
• Learner—meaning “the learning party to a learning programme agreement, who is enrolled in a registered learning programme that has a curriculum registered with QCTO and includes [the] Iearner contemplated in both section 18( 1) and section 18(2 )of the Act” (emphasis added).
• Learnership—meaning “a learning programme that leads to an occupational qualification or part qualification and includes an apprenticeship and cadetship”
• Placement—meaning “a learner is placed in a workplace to complete part of an internship”
• Structured learning component—includes both “the knowledge and practical curriculum components of an occupational qualification” and the structured work experience component "means the workplace curriculum components of an occupational qualification” (emphasis added).
• Successful completion—meaning that “the Iearner has successfully completed the learning programme and has been declared competent”.
• Termination—means “the cancellation or dissolution of a learning programme agreement before one or more of the components of the learning programme agreement have been successfully completed”.
• Work integrated learning—“means a process that formally integrates a student's academic qualification or part qualification with work experience in participating employer organisations” (emphasis added).

The definitions quoted above are in need of some editing, because the way they are currently stated excludes—probably unintentionally—certain types, for example, the definition of a learner by implication excludes higher education qualifications.[The Directorate: SETA Support and Learnerships of the South African national Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) advised that the regulations are not finalized yet, the staff are still busy with the consolidation of public comments. As soon as the revised regulations are approved by the Minister, theywill then be publish in a gazette and also on the DHET website.]

Chapter 2 deals with the registration and management of learning programme agreements; chapter 3 with disputes; and chapter 4 with administrative provisions. Annexure A1 (pp. 12-20) reflects the full Learning Programme Agreement (excluding Skills Programmes) and annexure A2 the agreement for skills programmes.

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Department of Higher Education and Training. Government Gazette, Skills Development Act: Regulations: Learning Programme: Draft, (G 35489, General Notice 545), 5 July. Electronically available from http://www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=169917 and/or http://www.dhet.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=RY4DaZ62eQU%3d&tabid=346&mid=1415

E-portfolios and assessment via mobile technologies

The South African Council for Higher Education (CHE) imperatives with regard to programme (qualification) accreditation include, among others:

• That the programme must bring about an understanding within students about the specifics of the occupation for which they are being trained.
• That the students should master the techniques and skills required for a specific profession or occupation.
• And where feasible that work-based learning and placement in a work-based environment should form an integral part of the curriculum.

The CHE imperatives with regard to work-integrated learning further include (1) a mentoring system that enables the student to recognise her/his strengths and weaknesses in his/her work, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices; as well as (2) regular and systematic monitoring. Mobile devices may well enable both these.

However, Coulby, Laxton, Boomer and Davies (2011) caution that without a sound pedagogical rationale for the use of mobile devices; technical and infrastructural realities may very possibly reduce student engagement.

Higher educational health and social care curricula often comprise a blend of classroom instruction (in residential education); simulations and work-based placement/s. The latter provide for learning opportunities and the assessment of competencies and professional attributes that cannot be cannot be replicated in the former two. The authentic nature of work-based placement/s enables holistic preparation; preparing graduates for professional practice, including the culture and practices of the particular community of practice. Primary care community clinics are utilised for placements in teaching. (Coulby, et al citing Billet, 2001; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Vygotsky, 1978).

Although work-based placements are regarded essential; Coulby, et al realise that these learning and teaching environments are challenged by practical and sometimes complex issues such as:

• Unreliable or restricted access to PCs and IT infrastructure; resulting in a lack of access to contemporary information; learning materials and social networks.
• Students experiencing uncertainty due to inadequate feedback on their performance resulting in unpreparedness; as well as insufficient monitoring, mentoring and tutoring (pastoral care) due to inadequate resources.

A potential solution explored is the ‘Assessment and Learning in Practical Settings’ (ALPS) programme, which employed mobile technologies. Common competencies, representing ‘readiness’ for professional practice were identified and developed into mobile assessment tools—which enable and encourage students to seek a spectrum of assessment opportunities such as from peers in the health and social care professions; from service users (patients); and self-reflection. The ‘ALPS’ assessments are completed are automatically captured online in e-portfolios; which in turn enable tutor and student review and commentary—in this way future practice of students are shaped and high-level scaffolding feasible. The University of Leeds, for example, has several hundred students in six different discipline/qualification cohorts.

Coulby, C; Laxton, J; Boomer, S & Davies, N. 2011. Mobile technology and assessment: A case study from the ALPS (Assessment and Learning in Practical Settings) programme, pp. 51-70. In N Pachler, C Pimmer & J Seipold (Eds). 2011. Work-based Mobile Learning — concepts and cases. Oxford: Peter Lang.

WIL “is not as intuitive as it may seem”

The 12 points below originates from a summary and explanation by Annie Murphy Paul about a recent report on the science of training. She points out that there are right ways and wrong ways (myths) regarding how to design, deliver, and implement training. I adapted the 12 points to work-integrated learning (WIL):

1. It’s what happens before and after WIL that matters. Universities should clearly communicate to students what the WIL is about and how it relates to curriculum of the qualification and the day one competencies expected from graduates.
2. The WIL guidelines should clearly specify what a student need-to-be master versus learning where and how to find information rather than be expected to retain all information in memory.
3. WIL would be more effective when it’s presented as an opportunity of which the benefits to students are emphasised.
4. Decay of skills acquired during WIL may be reduced by giving students subsequent opportunities to practice the skills and/or refresher orientation upon employment.
5. Workplace mentors could increase the motivation of students by making clear the link between what is being taught during WIL and how it will be used in the careers of students.
6. The best WIL occurs through the practice in the workplace and feedback by workplace mentors — the effectiveness of WIL can be increase by making the process more active and engaging for students.
7. Mentors should be made aware that unstructured practice by students without clear objectives; without relevant stimulation; and without appropriate feedback can teach students wrong lessons. Students “will get the most out of practice when they are provided with constructive and timely feedback that identifies what they may be doing wrong and how to fix it”.
8. Superficial exposure during WIL leads to poor retention and poor transfer; whereas deep learning promotes retention and transfer.
9. There is value—both strategically and emotionally—in teaching students to cope with errors made. Workplace mentors should guide students to correct mistakes made which will help students to understand the task in greater depth and will help them deal with errors on the job.
10. Technology and contemporary gadgetry would not necessary improve WIL. However, if implemented appropriately it may add to the effectiveness of WIL.
11. Left to their own devices, students “may not be knowledgeable or motivated enough to make wise decisions about how and what to learn”, sound guidance is important.
12. The “psychological fidelity—how accurately it evokes the feelings and the responses the worker will have on the job” of simulations is more important than physical fidelity a student will encounter as worker on the job.

Paul, A.M. 2012. Learning on the job: myth vs science (How do we really learn to do our jobs?). A post published 2 July 2012 on Wray Herbert's blog We're only Human.

Salas, E.; Tannenbaum, S.I.; Kraiger, K. & Smith-Jentsch, K.A. 2012. The Science of Training and Development in Organizations: What Matters in Practice. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(2) 74–101.

Rhizomatous propagation of Co-op & Work-integrated Ed support

Propagating involves the breeding of specimens by natural processes from the parent stock. Rhizomes are creeping plant rootstalks or rootstocks that send out shoots and roots from its nodes. The word rhizome originates from New Latin rhizoma, meaning a "mass of roots"; which stems from Ancient Greek rhizóō, meaning "cause to strike root"; and rhiza, meaning "a root".

Cooperative and Work-integrated Education qualifications/programmes are distinguished by two characteristics, namely:

• Credit bearing work-experience forms an important part/s of the curriculum that is aimed at producing work-ready graduates.
• The curriculum is designed in conjunction with, supported by, and retained relevant by representation from the occupational-field that the programme is intended for.

Good Cooperative and Work-integrated Education practice is characterised by:

• An appropriate advisory system ensuring the retained relevance of the programme through providing regular updating input and critique about the existing curriculum.
• Continuous propagating and cultivating activities to retain and expand a supportive occupational community which is vital for (a) providing real-life work experience opportunities; as well as (b) mentoring of students by workplace supervisors during period of experience; and (c) evaluative input about the competence acquisition of students for graduation purposes.

The metaphor (rhizomatous propagation) suggests:

• Starting of a new garden from good quality rhizomes (irises, cannas and asparagus) — curriculum design in close collaboration with the vocational community and/or professional/statutory body.
• Keep the programme flavour just right by cooking/brewing with good quality rhizomes (ginger, hops and turmeric) — frequently consult the community of practice.
• The underground rhizome is crucial to longevity — foragers, insects, fungus, and fires may attempt to damage the qualification (the above-ground portion of an aspen colony), but a supportive group of practitioners will keep the qualification healthy and protected against threats.
• Rhizomes send out internodes that form roots from the bottom of the nodes and new upward-growing shoots from the top of the nodes — the members of the programme’s advisory system are instrumental in expanding the network of supportive organisations.
• Similar to a rhizome, a stolon (e.g. strawberry plants) grow long internodes that generates new shoots at the end — active marketing interventions takes place to generate wider support.
• A rhizome (also stem tuber or enlarged stolon) serves as storage organ that is often high in starch (e.g. common potatoes) — enabling survival during winter or drought.
• The rhizomes of some species grow above ground, e.g. iris species lie at the soil surface; whereas other are underground, e.g. bamboo — some members of the community of practice render explicit support whereas the contributions of other are equivocal.
• Generally rhizomes form a single layer, but some form a multi-tiered mass — in some communities of practice a qualification may lead to a variety of career paths, whereas in other it is limited.

Employability and positional cultural capital

Brown, Hesketh and Williams (2003) present two contrasting theories prior to their own:

Consensus theory categorises societies according to their ‘stage’ of developed-‘ness’. Employability is marked by the degree of “democratisation of capitalism” and “employers are having to find new ways of attracting and retaining talent without the aid of bureaucratic careers” in advanced knowledge economies (p. 113).

Conflict theory portrays employability as “an attempt to legitimate unequal opportunities in education and the labour market at a time of growing income inequalities” (p. 114). Companies favour ‘plug-in-and-play’ hiring practices, rather than incurring expensive and intensive training, thereby shifting the responsibility of education and training onto the individual. Employability freed “employers from the moral or social obligations to employees” (p. 115).

Positional Conflict Theory comprises two elements, namely the rigging of the market and the ranking of the individual therein (p 116-9). It is no longer a matter of “of gaining credentials in order to climb bureaucratic career ladders, but of maintaining one’s employability, of keeping fit in both the internal and external markets for jobs through the acquisition of externally validated credentials, in-house training programmes, social contacts and networks” (p. 118). What matters is “how ‘the self’ is packaged by labour market entrants, and how prospective employers decode these personal qualities as indicators of productive potential” (ranking). However, “positional competition is not exclusive to individuals and social groups, because companies and universities are also engaged in positional power struggles that shape the life chances of contestants” (p. 119).

Brown et al (2003: 120) emphasise the importance of understanding “the nature of” and how it is perceived in the labour market as opposed to in education. They observe that cultural capital “may be deployed in the education system to facilitate academic success, but at the same time contradict changing models of organisational efficiency and leadership that place a high premium on ‘personal qualities’ rather than ‘academic abilities”. With regard to employability it needs to kept in mind that the recruitment process in ‘personalised’:

When employers reject candidates as unsuitable it could be argued that they are being rejected for lacking ‘cultural’ capital. There is absolutely no doubt that this happens when people are seen to have the wrong accent, dress inappropriately at an interview, or do not know the rules of the game when candidates are invited to a formal dinner to meet company employees.

Brown, P.; Hesketh, A. & Williams, S. 2003. Employability in a Knowledge Driven Economy. Journal of Education and Work, 16(2), June 2003, pp 107-126.

Semester in-industry learning industry affiliates model

The semester-in-industry model is, according to Edwards (2007) a characteristic of the Australian undergraduate engineering work-integrated learning industry affiliates program. Engineers Australia, the Australian engineering accrediting body, advocates that a key differentiating element of a professional engineering degree from an applied science degree is exposure through work-practice. The industry affiliates program entail students work on a joint industry-university supervised project during the first semester of the final year. Edwards (2007) summarizes the roles and responsibilities of the three partners to the industry affiliates program as follow:

• The industry partner provides the resources for the project; technical supervision for the student; and a suitable workplace for the student similar to that provided for commencing engineers. Industry partners are not expected to pay students.
• The aim is to integrate the student into the professional culture of organization. The student manages the project and adheres to the dress and attendance standards of the industry partner.
• The university selects suitable projects (in consultation with industry partners); help match students to projects; and provides academic supervision of students by visiting student in industry placement to ensure the meeting of requirements.

 The schedule of a typical industry affiliates program model is as follow (Edwards 2007):

October (of year before)	Briefing of students and preparation of CVs
November	List of project topics released and student apply
December to January	Students interviewed and selected for projects
February	Pre-industry workshops; agreements signed between industry partner and student; and student prepares project milestones
February to June	Industry experience by executing an assigned project and regular monitoring of project plan by industry and university
June	Exhibition of projects and submission of thesis

Work-integrated Learning (WiL) is a term used by many Australian universities and internationally to refer to activities that integrate the work (or industry) experience with formal studies. Edwards (2007) points out that it can take multiple forms, such as periods of work experience, internships, site visits, industry based projects, case studies using industry experience, having industry experts provide guest lectures, etc.

Edwards, D. 2007. Integrating Work Integrated Learning. Presented at the International Conference on Engineering Education – ICEE 2007, September 3 – 7, Coimbra, Portugal. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://www.ineer.org/Events/ICEE2007/papers/226.pdf   

Transcending competence—learning to learn

If you wish to be vocationally successful you need to transcend knowledge, skills and competence and gain meta-competence, argues Raelin (2000: 11)—it is not particular skills that are important, but the ability to adapt knowledge, skills and competence to changing environments. Acquired knowledge does not represent a competitive advantage, because it becomes stale and require continuous renewal. A continuous self-reflective approach must be acquired.

Raelin (2000: 13) highlights three levels of learning:

1.    First-order or single-loop learning—when we advance beyond habitual actions/responses (zero-order learning) to trying out new methods (trial-and-error).

2.    Second-order or double-loop learning—when the standard/established meanings underlying our habitual responses are challenged and we start transferring learning from one context to a next.

3.    Third-order or triple-loop (p. 14) learning entail becoming aware that the way the world is perceived (our underlying assumptions) might be based on questionable premises, learning about the context-of-contexts.

Raelin (2000: 13) asserts that transfer of learning, without third-order learning, may limit us to practitioner actions relying on preconceived criteria for appropriate actions. This limits innovation. Third-order learning entails holding virtual reflective conversations with the situation within which functioning—readjusting practice to changing circumstances.

 

Raelin (2000:14) advocates all three kinds of work-based learning, but emphasise the third-order as most important. He further make a link to just-in-time learning, where the individual's needs and preferences is responded to and learning is of use in work, as well as related to one's thinking and feelings.

 

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Five-stage internship model

While browsing the table of contents of the Sweitzer and King (1999: 59-65) publication The Successful Internship, Chapter 4 caught my eye: The stages of an Internship. Looking at the names of the five stages, it reminded me immediately of a post I did on 14 October 2009, about Oden's (2001) four movements of hospitality. I would like to draw a comparison between an intern's five stages of mind-state and the four movements of hospitality the mentor or supervisor should enact to alleviate the intern's frustration and contribute to better accomplishment:

An intern's likely five stages of mind-state	A mentor/supervisor's four movements in hospitality
Anticipation	Welcoming
Disillusionment	Restoring
Confrontation	Dwelling
Competence	Sending forth
Culmination

An intern usually looks forward in anticipation to her/his internship, only to start at a very low level of responsibility and opportunity to accomplish. The mentor or intern supervisor should be sensitive as host and welcome the intern (as guess).

Often disillusionment sets in, because of the difference between the prior anticipation and the reality taking place. This is where the mentor or intern supervisor, as host, should act hospitably and help restoring the intern—think of a guess that travelled a distance in primitive circumstances, arriving with feet dusty, probably thirsty and hungry. Restoring the guess by attending to her/his needs is important, similarly by engaging the intern by putting her/him at ease, giving the intern an orientation and see to the intern's safety, etc.

Sweitzer and King (1999: 62) quote the saying "The only way around is through", that is confronting the situation. The mentor or intern supervisor preparedness to dwell, that is in Oden's words "hospitality of presence— the mentor's demonstration of willingness to share her/his work knowledge, experiences and expertise; involving the intern in day-to-day work happening and answering the intern's questions; but also asking the intern's opinions and listen to the intern's suggestions in terms of her/his academic knowledge.

The dwelling enables the intern to gain competence, which leads to the culmination phase. Similarly the preceding three movements of hospitality has restored and empowered the guess to go forth, the host sends the intern forth.

I noticed that Sweitzer and King (2008) subsequently produced a follow-up publication: The Successful Internship: Personal, Professional, and Civic Development.

References

Oden, AG (Ed.). 2001. And you welcome me: a sourcebook on hospitality in early Christianity. Nashville, TN: Abingdon.

Sweitzer, H.F. & King, M.A. 1999. The successful internship—transformation & empowerment. Pacific Groove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Sweitzer, H.F. & King, M.A. 2008. The Successful Internship: Personal, Professional, and Civic Development. Thomson Brooks/Cole

Peer teaching

Live broadcasting and an expert panel appear to be worth considering for numerous communities of practice for peer teaching and learning from peers.

Sitting on the patio (18 Nov 2009) of our timeshare unit, at Ballito, KwaZulu-Natal, Martie excitedly shared an item (one of many as we relax together) from page 15 of the Longevity of August 2008: “live [medical] procedures … broadcasted interactively to large audiences around the world, is gaining momentum” state BEAM ME UP, IN THE NEWS column.

The news item elaborated on this form of peer teaching, informing readers about Dr Farrel Hellig, a South African cardiologist that conducted surgery at Sunninghill Hospital, in Johannesburg, transmitted live to the European Cardiology Congress, held in Barcelona, Spain. A panel in voice contact afforded delegates in attendance, some 1000 top cardiologists from the world, the opportunity to raise questions while Dr Hellig performed four surgical procedures. Such technological initiatives bring together a cardiology community as a whole in sharing knowledge in a real-life (in vivo) setting.

Professional bodies may use such live broadcastings for continued professional development.

Conference organisers may schedule such events as part of the programme.

Organisations may schedule such training or developmental opportunities, if the necessary technological infrastructure is accessible.

I worked for a group of companies that quarterly held in-house conferences to share technical and safety improvements, initiatives or accomplishments. Instead of gathering (which has particular value) this kind of peer teaching could have been used most effectively.

A High School Musical learning by earning exemplar

In the local paper (Roodepoort Record) of 30 October 2009 appeared the article below. The local high school (Hoërskool Florida) has two cafeterias, one a High School Musical look alike.

The restaurant manager not only provide good quality food and a good return for the school, but give interested scholars the opportunity to learn and earn. In exchange for their energy the manager teaches scholars profesionalism, working with money and management of a hospitality concern.

Learner-managed learning through work (LMLTW)

Boud and Symes (in Choy) stated nearly a decade ago

When learning challenges are created from the exigencies of work there is often on pre-existing map that represents the territory of knowledge being explored.

Exigencies are pressing or urgent situations, requiring immediate effort or action; it is intrinsic to circumstances; cases that demand prompt remedy; a cricis; a contingency; a predicament; a fix; a pinch.

• When organisations sponsor the education of staff, it is done with growing human resource capacity in mind and therefore only expected to be aligned with business goals. Something the university for industry succeeded in. It requires a paradigm shift from traditional higher education. It requires a profound shift in the academic approach.
• Service learning in the true sense of the concept cannot be prescriptive. Community needs are examples of exigencies.
• The advocates of problem-based/orientated curriculum design, argue for focussing on what challenges graduates would face and developing ability to and knowhow where and how to find the information and/or solutions to address the exigencies they would face as graduate.

Choy (2009: 143) states that "the origins of knowledge and their boundaries in a work-based learning context are a lot more nebulous compared to fixed disciplines of academia", which is a matter (I believe) a lot of academia have not grasped yet.

The proponents of organisation-centred curriculums (OCC) founded and agreed on a framework around three principles (Choy 2009: 144):

1. partnerships between the educational institution and the organisation/s
2. learning activities are based on the needs of the organisation/s and the worker-learners, therefore linked to work projects
3. assessment and evaluation are in terms of both the agreed work outcomes and the academic learning objectives - both these inform the standards and measures

Choy reports on a case study in this regard and use terms such as a 'boutique curriculum' which is the result of interactions between disciplinary area, professional practice and workplace goals. Learners are obviously interested in immediate application and transfer of newly acquired knowledge and skills. Choy make reference to the Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) model and Hierarchy of Learning Outcomes (HLO) to accomplish constructive assessment. Another important notion mentioned is the compilation of resource folders (comprising tools and uasable materials acquired during the course of the learning process). Some real stimulating stuff here.

References:

Choy, S. 2009. Teaching and assessment for an organisation-centred curriculum. Journal of Workplace Learning, 21(2), 143-155.

Assessing in vivo learning outcomes and competencies or not?

Alderman and Milne (2005) observe that work-based learning is now a significant part of numerous higher education qualifications, however, the monitoring (among others) thereof is subject to much debate. “Work-based learning (WBL) is undertaken in a wide variety of higher education contexts and is increasingly viewed as a valuable, and increasingly essential, component of both the undergraduate and postgraduate student learning experience. However, the development of rigorous pedagogies to underpin WBL and its assessment is still embryonic.” (Brodie & Irving 2008). The purpose of this post is an attempt to add a little to the existing body of knowledge.

 

Some qualifications, in the light of their particular outcomes, are designed to incorporate periods of required work-experience (real-life learning) that integrate with the academic study. Where Work-integrated Learning (WIL) is a structured part of such a qualification the volume (number of academic credits) of learning allocated thereto, should be appropriate to the purpose of the qualification and to the cognitive demands of the learning outcome and assessment criteria contained in the appropriate level descriptors. Following this expanded version of a paragraph (p. 9) that appeared in the South African Higher Education Qualifications Framework (HEQF) as policy in terms of the Higher Education Act, gazetted by the Department of Education (DoE 2007), it is stated:

It is the responsibility of institutions, which offer programmes requiring WIL credits to place students into WIL programmes. Such programmes must be appropriately structured, properly supervised and assessed.

 

Two 2004 publications of the Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC), a permanent structure of the South African Council on Higher Education (CHE), detail the last sentence of the quotation above. The CHE is an independent statutory body, which is responsible for advising the South African Minister of Education about higher education policy matters. The HEQC, led by an Executive Director, has executive responsibility for quality promotion and quality assurance of all higher education institutions. The two sets of HEQC (2004) criteria, namely two for Institutional Audits and for Programme Accreditation, therefore serve as important imperatives. A synopsis thereof includes:

·         Effective management and coordination, clear delineation of responsibilities and adequate provision of resources

·         Structured learning programme to accomplish the outcomes and learning agreements

·         Communication between host organisations, the institution and students

·         Mentoring system (supervision in the work place) that enables the student to recognise strengths and weaknesses, develop abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices

·         Monitoring and recording systems to regularly and systematically assess the progress and learning of students in the workplace

 

An assessment workshop of the Geraldine Rockefeller Dodge Foundation (Grant 2007:1) generated a nine significant concepts and principles regarding assessment, which ties in with the mentioned short course, namely:

1.       “The primary purpose of assessment is to improve performance, not audit it”, which ties up with the mentoring imperative of the HEQC.

2.       “Good assessment requires being clear about mission and goals, the standards to which you aspire, and the criteria by which you would measure success.

3.       Therefore, it is about MEASURING WHAT MATTERS. (If you assess what you value, others will value what you assess.)

4.       And, necessarily, it becomes about PLANNING BACKWARDS.

5.       Assessment that improves performance involves FEEDBACK.

6.       One tool for getting useful feedback on what matters most is the RUBRIC.

7.       Good assessment requires a variety of measures, data, and feedback.

8.       Good assessment is ongoing. It is about continuous improvement. And unless we designate and protect the TIME to do this work, it will not happen.

9.       Done collectively, assessment builds community.”

 

Astin, Banta, Cross, El-Khawa, Ewell, Hutchings, Marchese, McClenney, Mentkowski, Miller, Moran and Wright (s.a.) support and supplement the nine principles above: “…it begins with educational values; …is most effective when it reflects an understanding of learning as multidimensional, integrated, and revealed in performance over time; …works best when the programs it seeks to improve have clear, explicitly stated purposes; …requires attention to outcomes but also and equally to the experiences that lead to those outcomes; …works best when it is ongoing not episodic; …fosters wider improvement when representatives from across the educational community are involved; …makes a difference when it begins with issues of use and illuminates questions that people really care about; …is most likely to lead to improvement when it is part of a larger set of conditions that promote change; and through assessment, educators meet responsibilities to students and to the public.”

 

Burns (2008) remarks that assessment of the learning of students in clinical conditions; is unfortunately not always easy. She mentions patient participation in assessment of interpersonal skills, but expresses reservations about the ability to assess other competence. The Making Practice Based Learning Work (s.a.) website aims to enhance the quality of student experiences whilst on practice, i.e. work-based placements. This website is the product of a collaborative project involving staff from Bournemouth, Northumbria and Ulster universities as result of a grant from the Department of Employment and Learning (Northern Ireland) and the Higher Education Funding Council for England, to make practitioners more effective in and promoting the quality of practice based learning. In one of the many resources of this website, Allin and Turnock (s.a.) point out that assessment should be based on criteria that are known to the student; and also that assessment should be continuous—final judgement should never be on a single incident. Gray (in Allin & Turnock s.a.) observes that the contemporary focus of work-based learning is on competency standards, also called occupational and employment-related standards. Placement or work-based learning outcomes are therefore defined by means of outcomes to be achieved by students. Assessment, therefore take on a problem-centred approach, rather than knowledge-orientation. Demonstrating competency is about proving attainment of skills, not just writing about, and assessment becomes an integral part of the learning process. Bortot, Culberson, Modak, Becan-McBride and Niemand (2004) also emphasise that students must master defined competencies.

 

In contrast to the emphasis on outcomes and competencies, Bates (2003) argues that specific behavioural objectives cannot be specified in advance, because the moments of challenge cannot be predicted. Peterson (2004: 60) described such learning opportunities as “ambiguous, messy, and unclear” and observes that students “often do unexpected and serendipitous things”. Clark (2006:584) emphasises, in addition to “scientific dimensions of practice”, “technical knowledge and skills of the profession”, also “the so-called artistic … the ability to grapple with the gray or indeterminate areas of practice where moral ambiguity, value conflicts, and ethical dilemmas are commonplace”. Raths (in Bates 2003) states that the work-based learning (WBL) curriculum aught to be based on propositions about learning rather than specifically prescribed objectives. Bates (2003:303) found that a substantial body of literature address curriculum design and expected learning outcomes, but she did not find studies analysing “how students make sense” of the workplace experience. Baxter-Magolda (in Bates 2003) uses the term ‘self-authorship’ for the process that takes place as students incorporate their newfound learnings into their self-concept—“students construct knowledge as they construct ideas [that] they form about themselves” (p. 322). The WBL journals of students indicate that significant things happen unpredictably during WBL and that each placement entails different challenges. Gibbs & Panayiotis (2004) to some extent echo this by arguing that the assessment practices of higher education aught not enframe students, but rather liberate them by a notion of ‘letting learn’. Clark (2006:581) phrases the notion well by saying “learning is a continuous process grounded in experience, not an outcome”.

 

Ulmer (2001:68) cautioned about ‘patterning’ instead of learning—oversimplified it results in “Give me an example of how to think and do, and I’ll think and do like you.” Ulmer (2001) argues for problem-based learning—that is “learning that results from the process of working toward the understanding or resolution of a problem” (Barrows & Tamblyn in Peterson 2004)—and self-grading to achieve formative assessment. Ulmer emphasises that it is important that students know how they are learning; that they know if they are thinking critically; and that they can reflect on their own patterns of thought. Buchy & Quinlan (2000) made monitoring a participatory activity through a self-assessment scoring matrix. It develops the reflective thinking of students, as well as critical awareness of their own learning. Morton, Anderson, Frame, Moyes and Cameron (2006) found a stark contrast between the self-assessment of students and objective performance-based assessment of medical procedural competency.

 

It seems that there are two camps, one emphasising competencies and another that believes it limits. There appear to be a correlation between the schools of thought and the nature of the field of study, some do require specified competence, others are more open and some both.

 

REFERENCES

Alderman, B. & Milne, P. 2005. A model for work-based learning. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Pr.

Allin, L. & Turnock, C. s.a. Helping you understand assessment [online]. Making Practice Based Learning Work. Available on the Internet at: http://www.practicebasedlearning.org/students/docs/Assessment%20in%20the%20Work%20Place%20for%20students.doc

Astin, A.W.; Banta, T.W.; Cross, K.P.; El-Khawa, E.; Ewell, P.T.; Hutchings, P.; Marchese, T. J.; McClenney, K.M.; Mentkowski, M.; Miller, M.A.; Moran, E.T.; Wright, B.D. s.a. Principles of Good Practice for Assessing Student Learning [online]. Mercer University. Available on the Internet at: http://www2.mercer.edu/Assessment/Principles.htm

Bates, M. (2003) The assessment of work integrated learning: symptoms of personal change. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 14(2), 303-326.

Bortot, A.T.; Culberson, J.W.; Modak, I.; Becan-McBride, K. & Nieman, L.Z. 2004. Assessment of competencies in physicians-in-training through the delivery of a community-based health curriculum using distance learning. Medical Teacher, 26(7), 615-620.

Brodie, P. & Irving, K. 2007. Assessment in work-based learning: investigating a pedagogical approach to enhance student learning. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 32(1), 11-19.

Buchy, M. & Quinlan, K.M. 2000. Adapting the scoring matrix: a case study of adapting disciplinary tools for learning centred evaluation. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 25(1), 81-91.

Burns, D. 2008. A test of fitness: Dianne Burns asks if the profession should adopt new approaches to assessing student learning. Nursing Standard, 61(1), 23 April 2008, 22-23.

Clark, P.G. 2006. What would a theory of interprofessional education look like? Some suggestions for developing a theoretical framework for teamwork training. Journal of Interprofessional Care, 20(6), 577-589.

Dictionary.com [online] Available on the Internet at: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/clinical

DoE see South Africa. Department of Education.

Gibbs, P. & Panayiotis, A. 2004. Accreditation of knowledge as being-in-the-world. Journal of Education and Work, 17(3), September 2004, 333-346.

Grant, D. 2007. Assessment Principles & Concepts [online]. Geraldine Rockefeller Dodge Foundation. Available on the Internet at: http://www.grdodge.org/learning/assessment/principles.htm

HEQC see South Africa. Council for Higher Education, Higher Education Quality Committee.

Making Practice Based Learning Work [online]. s.a. Available on the Internet at: http://www.practicebasedlearning.org/home.htm

Morton, J.; Anderson, L.; Frame, F.; Moyes, J. & Cameron, H. 2006. Back to the future: teaching medical students clinical procedures. Medical Teacher, 28(8), 723-728.

Peterson, T.O. 2004. Assessing performance in problem-based service-learning projects. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 100, Winter 2004, 55-63.

South Africa. Department of Education. 2007. Higher Education Qualifications Framework. (Government Notice No 928), Government Gazette (No. 30353), 5 October 2007.

South Africa. Council for Higher Education, Higher Education Quality Committee. 2004. Criteria for Institutional Audits. Pretoria: Compress. Available on the Internet at: http://www.che.ac.za/documents/d000061/CHE_Institutional-Audit-Criteria_June2004.pdf

South Africa. Council for Higher Education, Higher Education Quality Committee. 2004. Criteria for Programme Accreditation. Pretoria. Available on the Internet at: http://www.che.ac.za/documents/d000084/CHE_accreditation_criteria_Nov2004.pdf

Starr-Glass, D. 2005. Metaphors and maps in evaluation. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 30(2), April 2005, 195-207.

Ulmer, M.B. 2001. Self-grading for formative assessment in problem-based learning. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 5(1), 68-71.

Knowledge - Competence - Performance - Action

The educational psychologist George Miller (in Norcini 2003) put forward a framework—illustrated in figure 1—for the assessment of clinical competence, i.e. proficiency based on actual observation of symptoms and treatment of disease in patients (Dictionary.com).

Miller (in Norcini 2003) differentiates between ‘action’, which is at the top of the framework, and lower levels, such as knowledge (at the lowest level), competence and performance. ‘Action’ is about what happens in practice. Norcini (2003) argues that the methods of work-based assessment should target the ‘action’ level. Care should be taken how data, for the basis of judgement, are collected. Data sources, such as diaries and portfolios, are recommended, but also observation.

 

 

Norcini, J.J. 2003. Work based assessment, ABC of learning and teaching in medicine. British Medical Journal, (326)7392, 5 April 2003, 653-5.

Assessment of work-integrated learning

While Bates (2003) indicates that work placements are used in academic programmes to prepare professionals of a variety of fields, Brodie and Irving (2007) state that work-based learning (WBL) is increasingly regarded as valuable with regard to Higher Education’s role to produce graduates with employability skills. Bates (2003:303) found that a substantial body of literature address curriculum design and expected learning outcomes, but she did not find studies analysing “how students make sense” of the workplace experience. She argues that course designs, without the latter, might be the result of intuitions based on ‘good teaching’ principles, but do not test the efficacy of workplace learning. Stasz and Brewer (in Bates 2003) observe that most literature on work or field placements focus on procedural aspects, rather than the accomplishments of students undergoing the WBL.

 

Baxter-Magolda (in Bates 2003) uses the term ‘self-authorship’ for the process that takes place as students incorporate their newfound learnings into their self-concept—“students construct knowledge as they construct ideas [that] they form about themselves” (p. 322). The WBL journals of students indicate that significant things happen unpredictably during WBL and that each placement entails different challenges. Bates (2003) therefore argues that specific behavioural objectives cannot be specified in advance, because the moments of challenge cannot be predicted. Raths (in Bates 2003) states that the WBL curriculum aught to be based on propositions about learning rather than specifically prescribed objectives.

 

Bates (2003) argues that the personal and emotional content [what Burnard (1996) calls experiential knowledge, visit http://psychsoma.co.za/learning_in_vivo/2008/08/experiential-pr.html] of the journals of students are just as important in assessment as the propositional knowledge documented. She reasons from the adult learning body of literature; mentions Biggs’ four principles of a person’s life-centred orientation to learn; as well as Boud, Cohen and Walker’s five propositions that assists in the understanding the learning that occurs from experiences. Bates (2003) concludes that irrespective of which partitioning is used, they should not be regarded as distinct categories, but rather as components of a process that entails deep learning. She presents the taxonomy of ‘symptoms of learning’ (p. 307) outlined in Table 1.

 

Table 1: The Bates (2003) Taxonomy of Symptoms of Learning

Category: The journal should provide evidence that the …	Criteria of evidence about journal content
1.    work placement experience has been the foundation of and the stimulus for learning	1.1      Selecting the learning task 1.2      Intrinsic motivation 1.3      Constructing meaning
2.    learner has actively constructed the work placement experience as it has evolved	2.1      Modifying the learning task 2.2      Making connections and changing focus 2.3      Collaboration and the construction of knowledge
3.    work placement learning has been a holistic experience	3.1      The student’s relationship to experiences 3.2      Adaptation and introspection by the student 3.3      Understanding the task 3.4      Understanding others
4.    work placement learning has been socially and culturally constructed during the course of the experience	4.1      The social construction of meaning 4.2      Critical self-reflection
5.    work placement learning has been influenced by the socio-emotional context in which it has occurred	5.1      Awareness of the feelings of both self and others and preparedness to explore these 5.2      Understanding how the feelings of both self and others impact on the task at hand 5.3      Willingness to modify and then engage in the task in order to accommodate socio-emotional experiences

 

Bates (2003) asserts that learning is continual; that understanding often occurs some time after the initial experience; that experiences build incrementally—each experience influenced by its own social and cultural context; and that understanding can be transformed or occur as a critical insight. Fundamental to Baxter-Magolda’s concept ‘self-authorship’—for the process of learning about ‘self in the world—is self-reflection, which results in organising thoughts and feelings and to form opinions and decisions. “All learning is ultimately learning about the self” (Bates 2003:322) and “[w]ithout the opportunity to continue building self-confidence and self-esteem there is little to no learning” (p. 323). There is an abundance of literature that emphasises the need for confidence in one’s ability to fulfil commitments; and that when people are willing to confront their anxieties and prepared to take risks the learning derived can be profound. Bates concludes that the feedback given about reflective journals plays a crucial role in confirming the learning process.

 

 

Bates, M. (2003) The assessment of work integrated learning: symptoms of personal change. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 14(2), 303-326.

Brodie, P. & Irving, K. (2007) Assessment in work-based learning: investigating a pedagogical approach to enhance student learning. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 32(1), 11-19.

Burnard, P. (1996) Acquiring interpersonal skills - a handbook of experiential learning for health professionals. 2nd edition. London: Chapman & Hall.

Capacitating work-based/integrated learning

Brodie and Irving (2007) observe that a rigorous pedagogy to underpin work-based learning (WBL) is still embryonic. They present a triangular (not the overused institute-employer-student three-way relationship) model of WBL-pedagogy, illustrated in figure 1, that has been developed based on the University of Chester’s more than 20 years of experience in supporting and assessing WBL. The model captures the inter-dependency that needs to be present, namely that students understand learning; critical reflection ability of students; and that students grasp their own acquired capabilities.

 

 

Brodie and Irving (2007) point out that WBL is increasingly regarded as valuable with regard to Higher Education’s role to produce graduates with employability skills. Workplaces as sites of learning, with their own curriculum, were only comparatively recently explored. The capabilities that graduates need when entering employment are similar to those of existing labour, namely to adapt to constant change and the demands of increasing complexity.

 

The triangular WBL pedagogical model rests on two important accepted pedagogical views: the constructivist theory and the recognition of communities of practice. The first theory proposes that people construct their own meaning within their specific situational context. The latter recognises socialisation of a person into a fraternity or a segment thereof in a socially constructed context. Neither, theory dwells on the role of the lecturer. Instead, a pragmatic view is taken regarding what the graduate need to know and be able to do when they engage—a student centred approach of WBL. The focus is on what will enable students. Within the open distance learning (ODL) context, the work-integrated learning (WIL) material needs to ensure that students master:

·         What learning is (that it implies change) and how each do it most effectively (the preferred style/s and approach of each—fitness for purpose)

·         How to recognise that they have learnt (reflective ability and reflection about own learning)

·         What informed their learning (the validity or justification of what they learnt—i.e. if it stands up to scrutiny against accepted evidence; reflexive ability)

·         What they still need to learn (recognise future learning needs through critical reflection)

·         What they know more about, became more able to do—what they have learnt (recognise and demonstrate the capabilities acquired; analysis and evaluation of the evidence)

It should be obvious that there is an interdependence and inter-relationship between the three corners of the triangular model. The role of lecturers is to capacitate students.

 

Higher Education is often associated with crediting higher level thinking and a devaluation of ‘doing’ capabilities acquired through WBL. However, students need to recognise, articulate and measure (assess) their own learning. The assessment of capability is probably the most important corner of the triangular WBL pedagogical model. There is interdependency with regard to the assessment of acquired learning.

 

Brodie, P. & Irving, K. (2007) Assessment in work-based learning: investigating a pedagogical approach to enhance student learning. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 32(1), 11-19.

Learning in working life and competence development

The learning 'acquisition' process, says Knud Illeris, always has both a cognitive (or content)  and an emotional (or incentive) side. He identifies three dimensions at play in the learning situation:

1. The content - knowledge, understandings, skills, abilities, attitudes, etc.

2. The incentive - emotion, feelings, motivation and volition

3. Interaction, communication and cooperation

The first two are two ends of a horizontal axes and the third a vertical axes, as illustrated below:

Illeris depicts working life as learning environment with an inverted triangle, with individual learning potentials at the top (vertical axes) and the two ends of the horizontal axes:

1. Technical-organisational learning environment

2. Social-cultural learning environment

By combining these two triangles depictions Illeris produces a model for learning in working life:

 Illeris, K & Associates. 2004. Learning in working life. Copenhagen: Roskilde University Press.