Learning in vivo

Call for more dialogue between universities and employers

Given the context of the dire need to improve education and to increase job opportunities for youth the, Catherine Wijnberg (2013)—the director and founder of Fetola, urges that the starting point is to collaborate—“to work together”. She specifies two prerequisites:

1. For educational institutions to engage in more dialogue with their ultimate clients, the employers.
2. For graduates to better match the needs of business.

The Accreditation Council for Cooperative Education (ACCE), established in 1998—emphasises employer involvement as an important attribute. Sandra Kerka (1999, p. 3) advocates more than dialogue between, but that partnerships should be grown into supportive relationships where “employer support does not have to be repeatedly obtained and there are clearly understood long-term expectations”. A notion reiterated by Reuss (2001) who declares partnerships are a key component to success. Orrell (2004) differentiates between the typical cottage industry and new managed culture within a community of practice. The latter characterised by partnerships among for example, employers, academia, students, higher education managers, professional bodies and placement agencies or careers offices. She emphasises that continued success is dependent upon recognition of all the involved parties; dependent upon clear agreements between parties; and attainment of explicit mutual benefits for all. She also cautions that if the benefits fail for any one party the overall partnership effectiveness is compromised. Thelme Janse van Rensburg (2012: 25) emphasises networking, and in particular the pursuing of online communication. The metaphor of rhizomatous propagation further serves as inspiration in this regard.

Accreditation Council for Cooperative Education. n.d. College and university program attributes. Retrieved May 6, 2013 from http://www.co-opaccreditation.org/attributes.htm

Janse van Rensburg, T. 2012. Revitalise your business. Professional Beauty, September 2012, 25-28.

Kerka, S. 1999. New directions for cooperative education. Eric Clearinghouse on adult career and vocational education, Columbus, OH. Eric Digest No 209. Retrieved April 25, 2002 from http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed434245.html

Orrell, J. 2004. Work-integrated learning programmes: Management and educational quality. In the proceedings of the Australian Universities Quality Forum 2004. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from
https://tls.vu.edu.au/vucollege/LiWC/resources/Orrell.pdf

Reuss, P.B. 2001. Students reap the benefits from faculty-employer connection. Journal of Career Planning & Employment, 61(3), 37-39.

Wijnberg, C. 2013. Small business finds Setas wanting [Download Small_business_finds_Setas_wanting_Catherine_Wijnberg_MG_3-9May]. Education column. Mail & Guardian, 3 to 9 May 2013, 36.

E-portfolios and assessment via mobile technologies

The South African Council for Higher Education (CHE) imperatives with regard to programme (qualification) accreditation include, among others:

• That the programme must bring about an understanding within students about the specifics of the occupation for which they are being trained.
• That the students should master the techniques and skills required for a specific profession or occupation.
• And where feasible that work-based learning and placement in a work-based environment should form an integral part of the curriculum.

The CHE imperatives with regard to work-integrated learning further include (1) a mentoring system that enables the student to recognise her/his strengths and weaknesses in his/her work, to develop existing and new abilities, and to gain knowledge of work practices; as well as (2) regular and systematic monitoring. Mobile devices may well enable both these.

However, Coulby, Laxton, Boomer and Davies (2011) caution that without a sound pedagogical rationale for the use of mobile devices; technical and infrastructural realities may very possibly reduce student engagement.

Higher educational health and social care curricula often comprise a blend of classroom instruction (in residential education); simulations and work-based placement/s. The latter provide for learning opportunities and the assessment of competencies and professional attributes that cannot be cannot be replicated in the former two. The authentic nature of work-based placement/s enables holistic preparation; preparing graduates for professional practice, including the culture and practices of the particular community of practice. Primary care community clinics are utilised for placements in teaching. (Coulby, et al citing Billet, 2001; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Vygotsky, 1978).

Although work-based placements are regarded essential; Coulby, et al realise that these learning and teaching environments are challenged by practical and sometimes complex issues such as:

• Unreliable or restricted access to PCs and IT infrastructure; resulting in a lack of access to contemporary information; learning materials and social networks.
• Students experiencing uncertainty due to inadequate feedback on their performance resulting in unpreparedness; as well as insufficient monitoring, mentoring and tutoring (pastoral care) due to inadequate resources.

A potential solution explored is the ‘Assessment and Learning in Practical Settings’ (ALPS) programme, which employed mobile technologies. Common competencies, representing ‘readiness’ for professional practice were identified and developed into mobile assessment tools—which enable and encourage students to seek a spectrum of assessment opportunities such as from peers in the health and social care professions; from service users (patients); and self-reflection. The ‘ALPS’ assessments are completed are automatically captured online in e-portfolios; which in turn enable tutor and student review and commentary—in this way future practice of students are shaped and high-level scaffolding feasible. The University of Leeds, for example, has several hundred students in six different discipline/qualification cohorts.

Coulby, C; Laxton, J; Boomer, S & Davies, N. 2011. Mobile technology and assessment: A case study from the ALPS (Assessment and Learning in Practical Settings) programme, pp. 51-70. In N Pachler, C Pimmer & J Seipold (Eds). 2011. Work-based Mobile Learning — concepts and cases. Oxford: Peter Lang.

From victim to winner of WIL placements



The offering of cooperative and work-integrated education programmes requires sufficient experiential/work-integrated learning providers (ELPs) in order to place students. Often higher education institutions fall victim to insufficient ELPs, which impacts the throughput of programmes with credit bearing work-integrated learning (WIL).

  

Vaughan Owgan (2012: 39) illuminates the dictionary meaning of victim, namely someone that “has come to feel helpless and passive in the face of events [that] they cannot control”. He indicates that the slowing down of the beauty-salon business is usually accompanied by a feeling of helplessness that turns into passivity—doing nothing. Concomitantly there is a reduction of advertising of beauty services during winter months. His advice in opposition to sitting helplessly, passively hoping, hold true with regard to recruiting and securing ELPS. His first two points—converted to a higher education context—and the fifth apply to academic management:

1. Academic staff members are working themselves to a standstill, but just cannot get on top of matters—perhaps addressing the academic staff numbers is necessary?
2. Evaluate the range of offering—consolidate and/or get rid of programmes with very limited student numbers.

Owgan’s (2012) next three points—also converted to a higher education context—relates to lecturing staff:

1. Maintain an accurate database of the community of practice—it has been found that a struggling beauty salon quite often has a lousy client database.
   • Implement an accurate standardise database—not random lists of pockets of stake holders and/or members of the community of practice.
   • Continuously grow the database and keep it accurate.
2. Increase the frequency of contact with the community of practice (stake holders)—remember the slogan “out of sight equals out of mind”.
   • Keep the community of practice informed about what is happening at the university. It need not be substantial glossy publications—short, but regular bite-size information morsels that add value to members of the community of practice.
   • Keep in mind the notion: “the right message to the right person at the right time”—make use of email and/or SMS packages and put the database in 3 to work.
3. Revisit ELPs that a Memorandum of Undertaking/understanding and/or Memorandum of Agreement have been entered into. Do not take those previously for granted. Show secured ELPs that they matter.

Owgan, V. 2012. Jump start your business for spring. Professional Beauty, September 2012, 39-42.

Networking for experiential learning providers

Cooperative and work-integrated education (CWIE) in higher education is about the institution and industry collaborating in offering educational programmes. The occupational field plays a key role in curriculum design, during which it is determined if work-integrated learning is the appropriate teaching and learning method and what part of the curriculum should be taught/learned this way. It follows that employers in industry should then serve as experiential/work-integrated learning providers (ELPs).

Take note of what Thelme Janse van Rensburg (2012: 25) accentuates:

Online marketing is the fastest growing branch of marketing today. As the world becomes ever more connected, keeping up with development and trends is vital for marketers trying to reach new audiences — who are more discerning, fragmented and cynical than ever.

You may ask what does this have to do with cooperative and work-integrated education. Allow me to explain. “Effective communication with your target market is key to business success” states (Janse van Rensburg, 2012: 25). Translated into higher education it means: effective communication with the key stakeholders employing the graduates of your qualification is key to success in teaching and learning.

Online communication with members of the community of practice provides an affordable means to attract potential experiential/work-integrated learning providers (ELPs). Janse van Rensburg (2012) emphasises that successful marketing (read communication) is about reaching the right people, in the right places at the right time. Knowing online avenues and selecting the most appropriate one/s to reach the target market/s is not only becoming a vital soft skill for marketers, but also vitally important for CWIE-practitioners.

• Online marketing (communication) extends beyond advertising on Internet to include target-market email communication; social media utilisation; search engine optimisation; and online public relations.
• Where to start, says Janse van Rensburg (2012), is at the programme’s webpage/s—a “front desk” where you can direct targeted people for qualification information and what the work-integrated learning (WIL) entail.
• Search engine optimisation (SEO) includes ‘tricks’ to increase the visibility of webpages through search engines—in effect to improve the ranking by enhancing the popularity.
• The social media, says Janse van Rensburg (2012), “provides a significant window of opportunity for getting in touch with” the community of practice:
  • Facebook, Twitter and Mxit present opportunities to inform and stay in touch through both an online profile and interaction. Twitter is an excellent means to keep in touch with the community of practice. Key players can further attract interest by liking Facebook entries.
  • LinkedIn allows for ‘business-to-business’ networking within the community of practice.
  • A blog serves as excellent facility to publish regular updates and snippets of information. Members in the community of practice may, as readers, subscribe to feeds to inform them about new posts. Previous posts are searchable through categories and sequential history. Readers may participate through comments and even as guest authors (if permitted by the blog provider).
  • YouTube enables the sharing of online videos about, for example, developments in the field; and the mentoring of students.

The ‘Big Five’ in social media in South Africa are Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, blogging and YouTube.

Janse van Rensburg (2012) likens an email campaign to the historical method of distributing pamphlets; but with the added advantage that it allows for responses and online conversations. The lists of addresses of the members of professional, vocational and/or statutory bodies can be obtained in order to generate a range of persuasive messages to generate interest and recruit ELPs.

Janse van Rensburg (2012) further mentions online marketing. Adverts on the webpages of professional, vocational and/or statutory bodies; the webpages of journals relevant to the community of practice; etc, could be used cost-effectively.

Janse van Rensburg, T. 2012. Revitalise your business. Professional Beauty, September 2012, 25-28.

Rhizomatous propagation of Co-op & Work-integrated Ed support

Propagating involves the breeding of specimens by natural processes from the parent stock. Rhizomes are creeping plant rootstalks or rootstocks that send out shoots and roots from its nodes. The word rhizome originates from New Latin rhizoma, meaning a "mass of roots"; which stems from Ancient Greek rhizóō, meaning "cause to strike root"; and rhiza, meaning "a root".

Cooperative and Work-integrated Education qualifications/programmes are distinguished by two characteristics, namely:

• Credit bearing work-experience forms an important part/s of the curriculum that is aimed at producing work-ready graduates.
• The curriculum is designed in conjunction with, supported by, and retained relevant by representation from the occupational-field that the programme is intended for.

Good Cooperative and Work-integrated Education practice is characterised by:

• An appropriate advisory system ensuring the retained relevance of the programme through providing regular updating input and critique about the existing curriculum.
• Continuous propagating and cultivating activities to retain and expand a supportive occupational community which is vital for (a) providing real-life work experience opportunities; as well as (b) mentoring of students by workplace supervisors during period of experience; and (c) evaluative input about the competence acquisition of students for graduation purposes.

The metaphor (rhizomatous propagation) suggests:

• Starting of a new garden from good quality rhizomes (irises, cannas and asparagus) — curriculum design in close collaboration with the vocational community and/or professional/statutory body.
• Keep the programme flavour just right by cooking/brewing with good quality rhizomes (ginger, hops and turmeric) — frequently consult the community of practice.
• The underground rhizome is crucial to longevity — foragers, insects, fungus, and fires may attempt to damage the qualification (the above-ground portion of an aspen colony), but a supportive group of practitioners will keep the qualification healthy and protected against threats.
• Rhizomes send out internodes that form roots from the bottom of the nodes and new upward-growing shoots from the top of the nodes — the members of the programme’s advisory system are instrumental in expanding the network of supportive organisations.
• Similar to a rhizome, a stolon (e.g. strawberry plants) grow long internodes that generates new shoots at the end — active marketing interventions takes place to generate wider support.
• A rhizome (also stem tuber or enlarged stolon) serves as storage organ that is often high in starch (e.g. common potatoes) — enabling survival during winter or drought.
• The rhizomes of some species grow above ground, e.g. iris species lie at the soil surface; whereas other are underground, e.g. bamboo — some members of the community of practice render explicit support whereas the contributions of other are equivocal.
• Generally rhizomes form a single layer, but some form a multi-tiered mass — in some communities of practice a qualification may lead to a variety of career paths, whereas in other it is limited.

Work-integrated learning as method of structured distance learning

The South African Ministry of Higher Education and Training (MHET) published the draft Policy Framework for the Provision of Distance Higher Education in the Government Gazette on 29 May 2012.

Based on the MHET Policy’s glossary (p. 4) definition of distance education work-integrated learning (WIL) can be regarded as a method of structured distance learning:

... a set of teaching and learning strategies (or educational methods) that can be used to overcome spatial and/or temporal separation between educators and students. However, it is not a single mode of delivery. It is a collection of methods for the provision of structured learning. It avoids the need for students to discover the curriculum by attending classes frequently and for long periods. Rather, it aims to create a quality learning environment using an appropriate combination of different media, tutorial support, peer group discussion, and practical sessions (emphasis added).

This is emphasised on page 8 of the draft MHET Policy that states: "Distance education proceeds from the belief that learning can be nurtured without necessarily requiring teachers and learners to be in the same place at the same time, and that the resource based nature of distance education allows for the possibility to achieve economies of scale" (emphasis added).

Page 8 of the draft MHET Policy also points out that distance education 'requires substantial up-front investment in curriculum design and materials development, including attention to issues of structure, pacing and meaningful formative assessment, as well as considerable investment in decentralised student support' (emphasis added), which is also true about WIL. Page 12 of the draft MHET Policy continues to state: 'Online communication allows students and academics to remain separated by space and time (although some forms of communication assume people congregating at a common time), but to sustain an ongoing dialogue. Online asynchronous discussion forums, for example, reflect an instance where the spatial separation between educator and learners is removed by the ‘virtual’ space of the Internet, but where there remains temporal separation' (emphasis added). The facilitation of reflection among students during and after stints of WIL has been emphasised.

Item 4.2.2 (h), pp. 22-23 of the draft MHET Policy giving the example of teacher education should enjoy appropriate attention:

Teacher education is a good example here: it remains in the lowest CESM funding category even though new accreditation requirements require investment in a robust teaching practice placement, mentoring and supervision system. While teaching practice has been funded as a full course at funding level 1, the issue now is to define it as an experiential learning component through the funding review process and thus fund it accordingly. Similar concerns arise regarding any programmes of study that require substantive work-integrated-learning and/or practical components and/or substantial online engagement between teachers and students in synchronous and asynchronous fora. Such requirements militate against the potential of achieving economies of scale.

It needs to be pointed out that the statement above does not mention the role of the teaching community of practice, which is a very important oversight. The collaborative notion in Cooperative and Work-integrated Education is not mentioned in the draft policy. The establishment of a supportive community of practice is crucial with regard to curriculum design, especially if work-integrated learning is decided upon as most appropriate method.

Practitioners, serving as mentors for learners, are the third key players in programmes that include work-integrated learning as preferred method. The up-front investment in for quality work-integrated learning includes appropriate materials development that would structure and pace learning as well as empower workplace mentors to offer meaningful formative assessment. This is where the investment of decentralised student support of quality work-integrated learning should focus. (Page 8 of the draft MHET Policy)

Although improvement of the quality of distance education is mentioned in section 4.3 (p. 23); concern about quality and of “inadequate practical work or exposure to work integrated learning” is highlighted.

Republic of South Africa. 2012. Department of Higher Education and Training. Draft Policy Framework for the Provision of Distance Higher Education in South African Universities. Retrieved online from: http://www.dhet.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=ZgZKPb1fM38%3D&tabid=36

CWIE assessment should take into account the socially mediated and participatory nature of learning

The above is agued by Eames (2003, in Hodges 2011: 53) because individual students rarely work alone in the workplace, which are “inherently interactive, collegial and interdependent”. The learning of students and their performance are influence by a variety of factors beyond the control of the student. Assessment that “take[s] into account the socially mediated and participatory nature of learning” requires “boundary crossing into communities of work practice” by, for example, “involving students is critically reflecting on their workplace experiences” (Hodges 2011: 55). The incorporation of critical reflection into a range of assessable learning evidence “enables students to justify and validate their claims for learning”. Substantial and important learning in the workplace occurs spontaneously and informally by shear engagement in daily work, observation and interaction with other.

Hodges (2011: 54) points out that assessment is usually “framed within the” curriculum (the pre-determined learning outcomes), which often ignores the setting of learning. Instead, pre-set learning outcomes should be considered “broad intentions and directions for learning that allow for unanticipated, emergent learning …” (p. 56). He argues (p. 54) for “sustainable assessment”, which considers both the immediate and the future abilities of students—that help “develop knowledge, skills, and abilities” which can be transferred to future contexts and challenges.

Hodges, D. 2011. The assessment of student learning in cooperative and work integrated education (pp. 52-61). In R.K. Coll & K.E. Zegwaard (Eds.). International handbook for cooperative and work-integrated education (2^nd ed.). World Association for Cooperative Education Inc.

The experience of learning from a live person

The words of the post title is taken from the first line of page 277 of 'Poser, my life in twenty-three yoga poses'. Claire Dederer (2011), in my opinion, captured here what true learning-in-experience is about.

A colleague asked me today about terms in use for various kinds of learning from real-life experiences. People assign meaning to terms they embrace or they use terms as vessels to convey meaning they assign. Terms get politised. Terms belong to certain followings or communities of practice (I've used used such).

Imagine the medieval guilds. A master teaching apprentices.

Claire got an assignment to write a piece for The New York Times on the way the Naropa University 'integrated contemplative practice into its coursework' (p. 266). The PR office of the university arranged that she spent a week visiting classes experiencing. Claire took up yoga and meditation several years before. Her experiences at Naropa, however, made a deep impression on her. Synchronistically she enrolled for a beginning class at the Yoga Workshop by the ashtanga yoga master Richard Freeman. Claire watched him performing the jump-through and got so inspired she believed deep in her heart that she can do it (p. 276) and remark: "Yoga is the closest thing many of us will ever encounter to a pure oral tradition. No substitutions, so far, have even come close to approximating the experience of learning from a live person. As I discovered early in my practice, learning from a video doesn't quite work, nor does a book ..."

If a learning enviroment can be created to let students experience this kind of grasp and mastery, then true cooperative & work-integrated education (or whatever terminology is prefered) takes place. In Claire Dederer's words (277) "Many writers have talked about the mystery of transmission. ... Maybe it's simply seeing the [yoga] poses done in three dimensions. But it feels like something more than that. When your teacher [mentor/workplace supervisor] shows you how something is done, there is a feeling of possibility, a transmittal of something like faith. Yes, this can be done [or, oh that is how it is done correctly]. I'm seeing it right before my eyes."

 
Dederer, C. 2011. Poser, my life in twenty-three yoga poses. London: Bloomsbury.

Semester in-industry learning industry affiliates model

The semester-in-industry model is, according to Edwards (2007) a characteristic of the Australian undergraduate engineering work-integrated learning industry affiliates program. Engineers Australia, the Australian engineering accrediting body, advocates that a key differentiating element of a professional engineering degree from an applied science degree is exposure through work-practice. The industry affiliates program entail students work on a joint industry-university supervised project during the first semester of the final year. Edwards (2007) summarizes the roles and responsibilities of the three partners to the industry affiliates program as follow:

• The industry partner provides the resources for the project; technical supervision for the student; and a suitable workplace for the student similar to that provided for commencing engineers. Industry partners are not expected to pay students.
• The aim is to integrate the student into the professional culture of organization. The student manages the project and adheres to the dress and attendance standards of the industry partner.
• The university selects suitable projects (in consultation with industry partners); help match students to projects; and provides academic supervision of students by visiting student in industry placement to ensure the meeting of requirements.

 The schedule of a typical industry affiliates program model is as follow (Edwards 2007):

October (of year before)	Briefing of students and preparation of CVs
November	List of project topics released and student apply
December to January	Students interviewed and selected for projects
February	Pre-industry workshops; agreements signed between industry partner and student; and student prepares project milestones
February to June	Industry experience by executing an assigned project and regular monitoring of project plan by industry and university
June	Exhibition of projects and submission of thesis

Work-integrated Learning (WiL) is a term used by many Australian universities and internationally to refer to activities that integrate the work (or industry) experience with formal studies. Edwards (2007) points out that it can take multiple forms, such as periods of work experience, internships, site visits, industry based projects, case studies using industry experience, having industry experts provide guest lectures, etc.

Edwards, D. 2007. Integrating Work Integrated Learning. Presented at the International Conference on Engineering Education – ICEE 2007, September 3 – 7, Coimbra, Portugal. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from http://www.ineer.org/Events/ICEE2007/papers/226.pdf   

Emergent practice for complex and novel practice for chaotic

Learning in real-life situation is shifting towards emergent and novel practice because best practices are restricted to simple situations. Harold Jarche advocates the nurturing of a linchpin culture—locking pin that goes through the end of an axle outside the wheel to keep the wheel from coming off; anything serving to hold together the parts of a whole; or something that holds the various elements of a complicated structure together.

An assortment of linchpins.

Harold Jarche points out that the industrial model is no longer of much use, because work is difficult, calling for innovation and is becoming increasingly one of a kind and creative. He sketches the Cynefin-model framework as follow:

Cynefin is a Welsh word, chosen by the Welsh scholar Dave Snowden, which conveys the sense that we all have multiple pasts: cultural, religious, geographic, etc. The term illustrates the evolutionary nature of complex systems, including their inherent uncertainty and serves as reminder that all human interactions are strongly influenced and frequently determined by our personal and collective experiences.

Domain		Cause and effect relationship		Response	Practice
Simple		Is obvious.		Sense - Categorise - Respond	Apply best practice
Complicated		Requires analysis or some other form of investigation and/or the application of expert knowledge.		Sense - Analyze - Respond	Apply good practice
Complex		Can only be perceived in retrospect, but not in advance.		Probe - Sense - Respond	Sense emergent practice
Chaotic		No relationship between cause and effect at systems level.		Act - Sense - Respond	Discover novel practice
Disorder		State of not knowing what type of causality exists		People tend to revert to their own comfort zone in decision making in order to respond.	Complacency leads to failure

In the Cynefin framework the boundary between simple and chaotic is seen as catastrophic. It's not enough that selected individuals are prepared (becoming linchpins); collectively society will have to be able to deal with change— communities need to be helped out of their comfort zones, overcome their fears and get innate creativity flowing (a linchpin culture).

Sense making for personal knowledge management

Personal knowledge management (PKM) is an individually—according to own abilities, interests & motivation—created process to make sense of information and experience in our electronic surround, states Harold Jarche in his blog post of 17 March 2010. He uses the diagram below (seek-sense-share) to illustrate the value adding through five different ways, namely filtering (sorting out signal from noise); validation (ensuring reliable information); synthesis (indicate patterns, trends or flows); presentation (making understandable); and customisation (describing in context).

Visit http://www.jarche.com/2010/03/sense-making/ for a more detailed description.

In Harold Jarche's follow-up post on 18 March 2010 he states: "People use their knowledge to make sense of data and information. People create information that represents their knowledge, which can then be more widely shared."

I dare say that the two post by Harold Jarche captures my intentions with this blog learning_in_vivo. Ultimately my aim is to share and engage in debate to personally grow in wisdom.

Tweets enrich learning from work

Tweet-sharing presents a potentially powerful means of spreading learning derived from work experiences for students during prerequisite in vivo learning; for members of a community of practice; for participants in a learning through work programme; etc. Download Academic tweeting to learn MG29Jan-4Feb2010 What do readers of this post think of the idea? Could tweets and re-tweets become the material for reflective practice?

Collective work-based learning

Raelin (2000: 66-100) discusses three kinds of collective work-based learning, namely:

• Action Learning
• Community of Practice
• Action Science

Action Learning

It is an educational strategy that entails groups seeking to derive learning from real-time (in vivo) problem solving. In about 1975, after conversion to adult membership of my congregation I engaged in entry-level instruction of catechumens. At the time the notion of learning by doing got impressed upon my mind. In trying to bring about learning, I have subsequently always tried to build in activity in learning facilitation. Raelin (2000: 66-7) remarks that such activities are useful; but neither sufficient to enable conversion of theory into tacit knowledge; nor for participants/delegates to challenge and reflect on their own theoretical assumptions. Only if people take real positions; are obliged to make moral judgements and required to defend those under pressure do real learning occur. Action learning teams present itself as a means to introduce work-based learning into a work environment.

Community of Practice

Raelin (2000: 75) asserts that "communities of practice evolve as people united in a common enterprise develop a shared history as well as particular values, beliefs, ways of talking, and ways of doing things". Membership is spontaneous and through involvement with one another—mutual engagement—in the process of pursuing the same practice. Problem solving together becomes (as a community) becomes a natural social activity and meanings are informally negotiated. Often knowledge creation is tacit and practices become interpersonally instinctive. A "shared repertoire, including routines, words, tools, ways of doing things, stories, gestures, concepts, and the like that symbolize their shared practice" (Raelin 2000: 76)emerges. Members of a community of practice often serve as gate keepers with regard to the practice.

Raelin (2000: 78) observes that facilitation might accelerate the process toward the emergence of a community of practice, but he expresses reservation if an organisation as a whole could become a community of practice—there are just too many barriers and politics. He discusses the use of Future Search (pp 24-25 of PsychDigest Vol 1 No 3; Download FutureSearch_AfronautHigherEducationlaunchpad-posternarrative) technology (p. 83), Open Space Technology (p. 84) and Virtual Team Learning (p. 85), but cautions about the latter that nobody has yet "invented a technology that replaces a pitcher of beer".

Action Science

When I saw this heading I have been most intrigued. Raelin (2000: 89) defines action science as "a work-based intervention strategy for helping learners increase their effectiveness is social situations through heightened awareness of their action and interaction assumptions". It is a form of 'double-loop' learning derived from becoming aware of a mismatch between your values and your actions and an internal commitment to embracing new or other. The term reflection-in-action—described as rethinking to discover how and what that has been done contributed to the expected or unexpected outcome—is preferred by some, e.g. Donald Schön (p. 90). A member of a community of practice would typically offer a frame of the situation a hand. The members collectively would then reflect upon the frame/s and start testing the underlying assumptions and reasoning processes that surface. The aim is to narrow the inconsistencies between espoused (what is advocated) theories versus theories-in-use (actual practice).

Raelin (2000: 90) agrees with Habermas's views and points out three types of knowledge:

1. Technical knowledge entails "predictions about observable events, physical or social"; may result in empirical or theoretical discourse; and "relies upon hypothetico-deductive logic".
2. Practical knowledge involves "social norms, ideals, values, and moral decisions"; that in the absence of empirical tests rely on tradition and authority. However, consensus derived through dialogue is preferred and metaphors often used to resolve contradictions. Ideally, practical discourse searches for meaning rather than trying to outlining causality.
3. Emancipatory knowledge is gained through critical self-reflection about the taken-for-granted assumptions. The validity of premises for interpretation or understanding is tested through reflective discourse.

People are often socially conditioned—Model I behaviour—which is "characterised by a need to control, maximize winning, suppress emotions, and be rational" Raelin (2000: 91) with minimal learning, but reinforcement of existing socialisation. In contrast, Model II behaviour, "is based on directly observable data" at hand and entails exchange of viewpoints—resulting in increased learning and producing of intended end-results. The table below (based Raelin 2000: 94) on serves as illustration:

	Model I behaviour	Model II behaviour
Contextual cue or triggering condition	An elderly woman is curious about the use of SMSes	Another elderly person, similar age, notices how efficient SMS communication is
Underlying assumptions	Cellphones are complex, I would not master it.	Believe it is possible to master the use of the SMS function of a cellphone
Action strategies	Is shown by a user (grandchild) what an SMS is and how to go about creating a message, sending it, receiving it, retrieving it and responding	Ask a user to demonstrate how to go about creating a message, sending it, receiving it, retrieving it and responding. Make notes how to go about and try SMSing.
Consequences in the behavioural world for learning	Promptly forgets and ask again in future when observing fellow residents of the retirement facility receiving SMSes	Master the use of the SMSes and enjoy the benefit of keeping in touch with relatives and friends

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Work-based learning model

Raelin (2000: 49-65) theorises about work-based learning firstly by comparing theory and practice modes of learning, there after explicit versus tacit forms of knowledge. He then builds a conceptual model by first looking at individual work-based learning, in terms of the two mentioned modes of learning and the two forms of knowledge:

	Explicit	Tacit
Theory:	Conceptualisation	Experimentation
Practice:	Reflection	Experience

He next turns to the organisation, as collective, and builds further on his model of work-based learning:

	Explicit	Tacit
Theory:	Applied science	Action learning
Practice:	Action science	Community of practice

Then he completes his pyramid-shape model (Raelin 2000: 64)

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Transcending competence—learning to learn

If you wish to be vocationally successful you need to transcend knowledge, skills and competence and gain meta-competence, argues Raelin (2000: 11)—it is not particular skills that are important, but the ability to adapt knowledge, skills and competence to changing environments. Acquired knowledge does not represent a competitive advantage, because it becomes stale and require continuous renewal. A continuous self-reflective approach must be acquired.

Raelin (2000: 13) highlights three levels of learning:

1.    First-order or single-loop learning—when we advance beyond habitual actions/responses (zero-order learning) to trying out new methods (trial-and-error).

2.    Second-order or double-loop learning—when the standard/established meanings underlying our habitual responses are challenged and we start transferring learning from one context to a next.

3.    Third-order or triple-loop (p. 14) learning entail becoming aware that the way the world is perceived (our underlying assumptions) might be based on questionable premises, learning about the context-of-contexts.

Raelin (2000: 13) asserts that transfer of learning, without third-order learning, may limit us to practitioner actions relying on preconceived criteria for appropriate actions. This limits innovation. Third-order learning entails holding virtual reflective conversations with the situation within which functioning—readjusting practice to changing circumstances.

 

Raelin (2000:14) advocates all three kinds of work-based learning, but emphasise the third-order as most important. He further make a link to just-in-time learning, where the individual's needs and preferences is responded to and learning is of use in work, as well as related to one's thinking and feelings.

 

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Peer teaching

Live broadcasting and an expert panel appear to be worth considering for numerous communities of practice for peer teaching and learning from peers.

Sitting on the patio (18 Nov 2009) of our timeshare unit, at Ballito, KwaZulu-Natal, Martie excitedly shared an item (one of many as we relax together) from page 15 of the Longevity of August 2008: “live [medical] procedures … broadcasted interactively to large audiences around the world, is gaining momentum” state BEAM ME UP, IN THE NEWS column.

The news item elaborated on this form of peer teaching, informing readers about Dr Farrel Hellig, a South African cardiologist that conducted surgery at Sunninghill Hospital, in Johannesburg, transmitted live to the European Cardiology Congress, held in Barcelona, Spain. A panel in voice contact afforded delegates in attendance, some 1000 top cardiologists from the world, the opportunity to raise questions while Dr Hellig performed four surgical procedures. Such technological initiatives bring together a cardiology community as a whole in sharing knowledge in a real-life (in vivo) setting.

Professional bodies may use such live broadcastings for continued professional development.

Conference organisers may schedule such events as part of the programme.

Organisations may schedule such training or developmental opportunities, if the necessary technological infrastructure is accessible.

I worked for a group of companies that quarterly held in-house conferences to share technical and safety improvements, initiatives or accomplishments. Instead of gathering (which has particular value) this kind of peer teaching could have been used most effectively.

Action Reflection Learning & the Learning Coach

Isabel Rimanoczy enunciates that there are two different worlds of adult learning:

• The scholarly endeavour of synthesis of existing literature followed by empirical research—conceptual frameworks and theory building to explain practices.
• Practitioners within a community of practice—people daily face challenges, they employ their best judgement combining information available, conceptualisation, intuition and experience. Theoretical recommendations are seldom literally followed and practice is only occasionally converted back into theoretical frameworks, resulting in a gap between the real-life communities of practice and scholarly literature.

Action reflection learning (ARL) is an example of the second bullet—the community of practice grounded learning had only recently been coded formally as methodology. It is based on the 1940s action learning approach of Reg Revans. A group of people (set) periodically meet with the purpose to resolve work related problems—individuals table their problems and the members of the group help the individual find answers by asking questions. The implementation of a set advisor (or learning coach) evolved in that complex problems required specialist input, such as just-in-time knowledge, skills, teaching of new tools/techniques. The ARL approach has many uses, for example: improving team performance; creating post merger interventions; coaching and mentoring of individual members; designing accelerated development for young high potential entrants; organisational change; crisis intervention by task forces; developing synergy across teams; etc.

The coding of ARL practice resulted in the identification of 17 common elements, namely:

1. Taking ownership for one's learning.

2. Just in time intervention.

3. Linking.

4. Balance task/learning.

5. Questioning.

6. Guided reflection.

7. Feedback.

8. Unfamiliar environments.

9. Exchange of learnings.

10. Appreciative approach.

11. Safe environments.

12. Holistic involvement of the individual.

13. Learning and personality styles.

14. Coaching one-on-one.

15. Sequenced learning.

16. Learning coach.

17. Five system levels—professional, personal, team, organisational & business/task.

Rimanoczy, I. 2007. Action reflection learning: a learning methodology based on common sense. Industrial and Commercial Training, 39(1), 43-51.

Rimanoczy, I. 2007. Action learning and action reflection learning: are they different? Industrial and Commercial Training, 39(5), 246-256.

techne, episteme, poiesis, praxis & phronesis

Charles Sides and Ann Mrvica differentiates between five (5) very important Aristotelian concepts:

• techne - what people can do; a state of capacity to make; the rational method involved in producing an object or accomplishing a goal or objective
• episteme - a fixed set of information possessed by people; a system of understanding or a body of ideas which give shape to theoretical knowledge
• poiesis - means 'to make'; it is an action that transforms; it refers to 'bringing-forth'; a threshold occasion: a moment of ecstasis when something/s becomes another
• praxis - a practice (as distinguished from theory); application of skill; conduct in a public space considered as excellence
• phronesis - the capability to consider the mode of action in order to deliver change, especially to enhance the quality of life; some believe it includes the ability to reflect upon; it is practical wisdom, knowledge of the proper ends of life, in contrast to sophia - involving wisdom concerning universal truths; science

Sides and Mrvica believes that internships - as form of learning - are pursuing techne, poiesis and praxis (pp. v & 1-2). Through internships knowledge communities are sustained. When deliberating about evaluation of internship, they add the term phronesis (pp. 95-98).

I found this differentiation extremely valuable.

Sides CH. & Mrvica A. 2007. Internships, theory and practice. New York: Baywood.

Academic staff need direct exposure to the field they are teaching for

Guess what Jones (1999), Stern & Rahn (1995) and I had in common in the late nineties.

Visit my blog post INC-CEL-FAR (what?) at http://psychsoma.co.za/learning_in_vivo/2008/08/inc-cel-far-wha.html

I based my mnemonic on the then South African technikons education paradigm espoused by the Certification Council for Technikon Education (SERTEC), a former statutory body for quality insurance of the former technikons. The mnemonic spelled the essentials: IN (Industry Needs) + CC (Continuous Consultation) + EL (Experiential Learning - as it was known then) + FA (Faculty Abreast) + R (Reciprocity) = Cooperative Education. SERTEC suggested regular and at times prolonged exposure of academic staff to the realities of the 'world of work' they are treaching for.

Jones (1999) reported that the East Mississippi Community College is sending its teachers back to 'school' by placing them in internships, because they want teachers to see what is needed in the classroom. Stern and Rahn (1995) offered some recommendations with regard to the work-based learning:

• "Most academic teachers will need some direct exposure - possibly in summer internships - to the industry in which their students are working".
• Academics need to work together with employers to develop integrated curriculums.

References:

Jones, B. 1999. Getting back into the 'real world'. Community College Week, 12(8), 22-24.

Stern, D. & Rahn, M. 1995. Preparing students for the world of work: how health career academics provide work-based learning. Educational Leadership, May 1995, 37-40.

Learner-managed learning through work (LMLTW)

Boud and Symes (in Choy) stated nearly a decade ago

When learning challenges are created from the exigencies of work there is often on pre-existing map that represents the territory of knowledge being explored.

Exigencies are pressing or urgent situations, requiring immediate effort or action; it is intrinsic to circumstances; cases that demand prompt remedy; a cricis; a contingency; a predicament; a fix; a pinch.

• When organisations sponsor the education of staff, it is done with growing human resource capacity in mind and therefore only expected to be aligned with business goals. Something the university for industry succeeded in. It requires a paradigm shift from traditional higher education. It requires a profound shift in the academic approach.
• Service learning in the true sense of the concept cannot be prescriptive. Community needs are examples of exigencies.
• The advocates of problem-based/orientated curriculum design, argue for focussing on what challenges graduates would face and developing ability to and knowhow where and how to find the information and/or solutions to address the exigencies they would face as graduate.

Choy (2009: 143) states that "the origins of knowledge and their boundaries in a work-based learning context are a lot more nebulous compared to fixed disciplines of academia", which is a matter (I believe) a lot of academia have not grasped yet.

The proponents of organisation-centred curriculums (OCC) founded and agreed on a framework around three principles (Choy 2009: 144):

1. partnerships between the educational institution and the organisation/s
2. learning activities are based on the needs of the organisation/s and the worker-learners, therefore linked to work projects
3. assessment and evaluation are in terms of both the agreed work outcomes and the academic learning objectives - both these inform the standards and measures

Choy reports on a case study in this regard and use terms such as a 'boutique curriculum' which is the result of interactions between disciplinary area, professional practice and workplace goals. Learners are obviously interested in immediate application and transfer of newly acquired knowledge and skills. Choy make reference to the Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) model and Hierarchy of Learning Outcomes (HLO) to accomplish constructive assessment. Another important notion mentioned is the compilation of resource folders (comprising tools and uasable materials acquired during the course of the learning process). Some real stimulating stuff here.

References:

Choy, S. 2009. Teaching and assessment for an organisation-centred curriculum. Journal of Workplace Learning, 21(2), 143-155.