Learning in vivo

Work-based mobile learning

“On-the-job training has been the educational ‘delivery’ [method of] choice over many years”, however, work-based mobile learning appears to be gaining interest as “one of the most important means of providing knowledge, skills and competencies” in the workplace observe Auer, Edwards and Zutin (2011: 219). His shift is due to increased wireless networks and mobile technology developments.

Apprenticeships represent a rudimentary form of work-based education. Modelled on the mediaeval guilds, the artisan personally tutored those wishing to learn the craft. They learned through “observation, imitation, practice and feedback” (p. 220). The increased pace of progress; greater volumes and complexity of learning required; and obsolescence of jobs resulted in more frequent career changes and the need to acquire entire new knowledge and skills.

Whereas traditionally work-based training consisted of formal education followed by organisational specific orientation and training; life-long learning became a necessity. Both individuals and organisations are more and more required to adapt—often quickly—to evolving situations in order to retain relevance in the marketplace.

Work-based mobile learning emerged as means to enable people to continue to function optimally. Unfortunately mature workers may oppose these developments due to fear for the unknown. To overcome this potential ‘fossilisation’ learning should be stimulating and enjoyable in order to become a habit of continuous growth and development. Furthermore, certain learning cannot be acquired in the confines of the workplace. This is where mobile learning allow for workers to learn and experience situations not commonly available in the workplace.

Auer, M.E.; Edwards, A. & Zutin, D.G. 2011. Online laboratories in interactive learning environments, pp. 219-248. In N. Pachler; C. Pimmer & J. Seipold (eds). 2011. Work-Based Mobile Learning— Concepts and Cases. Oxford: Peter Lang.

Employability depends on standing relative in hierarchy of jobseekers

Is Simon Roodhouse (2010: 25) remark cynical when he observes that a job-seeker’s understanding of the discipline or subject—which is a primary aim of university education—has little relevance to employability? What has relevance, however—citing Brown, Hesketh and Williams (2003), is on fulfilling the requirements of the specific job and “how one stands relative to others within a hierarchy of job seekers”. The latter in the current post-Apartheid South African context is further influenced by organisational corrective strategies with regard to the racial and gender mix of employees within departments.

Roodhouse (2010: 25) does add that higher education’s success in developing and delivering entry-to-work programmes is not doubted, neither higher education’s ability to qualifying people for work at higher levels doubted.

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (pp 21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

Brown, P.; Hesketh, A. & Williams, S. 2003. Employability in a Knowledge Driven Economy. Journal of Education and Work, 16(2), pp 107-126.

Disorganised and confusing connection of business needs with HE provision

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 26) concludes that “mechanisms to connect business needs with higher education provision are generally disorganised and confusing”. He starts the section of saying that “in higher education, workforce development is often referred to as work-based learning and is increasingly recognised as a field of study” (p. 24). He cites Costley’s (2001) observation that such work-based learning by higher education institutions incorporates “the learning people do, for, in and through work” (emphasis added) and quotes examples of longevity:

• Sandwich courses (academic study interspaced with work experience) and placements (elsewhere called (cooperative and work-integrated education) for longer than a century.
• Structured continuing professional development courses which recognise knowledge gained through work experience.
• Formalised accreditation of prior and experiential learning (APEL) processes.
• Familiarity of learning contracts as instruments in education.

Costley (2001, in Roodhouse 2010: 25) identify synonyms including “work based, work related, placement activities, elective modules, independent study, APEL, reach out, CPD, work based learning”. She further indicates that in most cases work based learning forms part of existing programmes at universities; and that learning outcomes and assessment criteria are embedded in the subject knowledge areas derived from scholarly activities and research.

The lack of sustained engagement of higher education in workforce development is difficult to conceptualise, observes Roodhouse (2010: 25) and highlights his observation with the following University Vocational Awards Council (2002):

We somehow seem to be incapable of learning from experience. Succeeding generations of employers are still marooned in tedious development project steering committees whose proceedings take place in academic jargon. Frustrated academics are still struggling to secure placements and projects with the very companies who are lambasting the quality of their graduates’ work readiness.

Roodhouse (2010: 25) speculates that it could also be “intellectual scepticism amongst the academic community, that employability which is associated with work-based learning is nothing more than a continuous conflict between individuals, market demands and fluctuations”.

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

Flexibility value of work-based learning

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 26) indicates that “there is an increased interest in workplace learning” and “that those in work are increasingly undertaking work-based learning qualifications” for a number of good reasons:

• People can see a direct relevance between their studies and their role in the workplace’
• Those studying can obtain support from employers.
• Work-based programmes enable individuals to structure their studies around their individual interests and professional development.
• Those studying may negotiate the focus of study, context, timescales and their assessment.
• Such programmes allow for flexible fitting into working and personal lives.
• Studying towards an accredited qualification adds to commitment to professional roles held.
• Seeking career progression and increased earning through programmes.

Roodhouse (2010: 26-27) cites Durrant, Rhodes and Young (2009) that indicate the value of work-based learning for employers, namely:

• Employees execute real work projects resulting in direct benefits for the employer.
• Employees are motivated and focus more specifically on the challenges of the organisation.
• Employees engaged in work-based learning programmes are intimately engaged in organisational processes.
• Tangible and visible investment in the development of employees results in increased loyalty.
• Improved employee retention; advancement potential as result of enhanced capabilities and becoming a sought-after employer.
• Enabling employees on their path of self-actualisation and achieving their full potential.
• Employers can partner with a university in developing programmes that support both the professional development of employees as well as organisation improvement.
• The organisational culture can be changed through work-based learning programmes and projects.
• It is a means towards achieving organisational business plans.
• The university has a stake in employee development.

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

Emergent practice for complex and novel practice for chaotic

Learning in real-life situation is shifting towards emergent and novel practice because best practices are restricted to simple situations. Harold Jarche advocates the nurturing of a linchpin culture—locking pin that goes through the end of an axle outside the wheel to keep the wheel from coming off; anything serving to hold together the parts of a whole; or something that holds the various elements of a complicated structure together.

An assortment of linchpins.

Harold Jarche points out that the industrial model is no longer of much use, because work is difficult, calling for innovation and is becoming increasingly one of a kind and creative. He sketches the Cynefin-model framework as follow:

Cynefin is a Welsh word, chosen by the Welsh scholar Dave Snowden, which conveys the sense that we all have multiple pasts: cultural, religious, geographic, etc. The term illustrates the evolutionary nature of complex systems, including their inherent uncertainty and serves as reminder that all human interactions are strongly influenced and frequently determined by our personal and collective experiences.

Domain		Cause and effect relationship		Response	Practice
Simple		Is obvious.		Sense - Categorise - Respond	Apply best practice
Complicated		Requires analysis or some other form of investigation and/or the application of expert knowledge.		Sense - Analyze - Respond	Apply good practice
Complex		Can only be perceived in retrospect, but not in advance.		Probe - Sense - Respond	Sense emergent practice
Chaotic		No relationship between cause and effect at systems level.		Act - Sense - Respond	Discover novel practice
Disorder		State of not knowing what type of causality exists		People tend to revert to their own comfort zone in decision making in order to respond.	Complacency leads to failure

In the Cynefin framework the boundary between simple and chaotic is seen as catastrophic. It's not enough that selected individuals are prepared (becoming linchpins); collectively society will have to be able to deal with change— communities need to be helped out of their comfort zones, overcome their fears and get innate creativity flowing (a linchpin culture).

Three key dimensions of work-integrated learning

When work-integrated learning is considered a necessary part of the curriculum of a qualification, it is important to systemically link three key dimensions, namely: teaching, marketing & counselling.

Two of the Ps of marketing are important considerations. Firstly, product—educational institutions are obliged to consult the relevant occupational field in the curriculum design of a qualification. Adequate representation of stake holders (including statutory, professional and/or vocational bodies) is important, not only for relevancy, but also for buy-in and support—an institution cannot offer a qualification that includes work-integrated learning, without sufficient host organisations willing to take students for real-life experiences in accordance with the curriculum outcomes. It follows logically that if there is good support within the occupational field that work-integrated learning is an important aspect of the curriculum, then less marketing (place, another P) efforts would be required to secure sufficient host organisations for students to undergo experience. It further follows logically that to ensure continuous relevance of the qualification and the support of the occupational field, continuous consultation is necessary—the formation and regular gathering of an advisory committee is therefore advocated. Advocates of academic freedom resist the idea of consumerism; however, public higher education institutions are accountable to its public and the state. Institutions might as well reap the benefit of sound marketing—satisfying the needs of the occupational/professional field the qualification intends to serve.

Teaching involves many aspects. It is among others very important to design a curriculum of a qualification as a whole and develop the learning of each part of the curriculum with the overall outcome in mind. Work-integrated learning as part of the overall curriculum requires special attention because students are generally removed from the institution—the learning takes place in a environment that academia do not have control over, yet the institution is ultimately responsible to ensure the learning outcomes were achieved. Orientation of students to the desired learning and a learning design that would bring about the desired learning is important. The workplace mentor needs to be given guidance in order to facilitate the relevant learning. The learning design includes the design of the appropriate learning evidence that will serve as substantiation that the student mastered the required learning outcomes. Formative assessment and summative evaluation of work-integrated learning also forms part of the teaching. In the South African context the Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) of the Council for Higher Education (CHE) determined a number of criteria towards good practice with regard to work-integrated learning.

Students come from various contexts; some are better prepared for entry into the world of work than other. Those underprepared students need counselling-type interventions to aid their development. Often higher education institutions offer a range of career and counselling services, such as CV writing, business writing, life skills, assertiveness, communication skills, etc. In the South African context the Department of Higher Education & Training gazetted that institutions that offer qualifications that include work-integrated learning are obliged to make sure that students are placed for such learning. It is advisable that those institutional support staff responsible to secure willing host organisations work together with the career and counselling staff in preparing students for the selection for work-integrated learning placements. It should be evident that the marketing aspect outlined in the first paragraph is crucial to the gazetted placement obligation.

Revised 17 August 2010: What I omitted, in error, from the above is the organisational perspective of talent growth through programmes that include work-integrated learning. The entire dimension of succession planning, people/talent development and the facilitation of organisational learning.

Peer teaching

Live broadcasting and an expert panel appear to be worth considering for numerous communities of practice for peer teaching and learning from peers.

Sitting on the patio (18 Nov 2009) of our timeshare unit, at Ballito, KwaZulu-Natal, Martie excitedly shared an item (one of many as we relax together) from page 15 of the Longevity of August 2008: “live [medical] procedures … broadcasted interactively to large audiences around the world, is gaining momentum” state BEAM ME UP, IN THE NEWS column.

The news item elaborated on this form of peer teaching, informing readers about Dr Farrel Hellig, a South African cardiologist that conducted surgery at Sunninghill Hospital, in Johannesburg, transmitted live to the European Cardiology Congress, held in Barcelona, Spain. A panel in voice contact afforded delegates in attendance, some 1000 top cardiologists from the world, the opportunity to raise questions while Dr Hellig performed four surgical procedures. Such technological initiatives bring together a cardiology community as a whole in sharing knowledge in a real-life (in vivo) setting.

Professional bodies may use such live broadcastings for continued professional development.

Conference organisers may schedule such events as part of the programme.

Organisations may schedule such training or developmental opportunities, if the necessary technological infrastructure is accessible.

I worked for a group of companies that quarterly held in-house conferences to share technical and safety improvements, initiatives or accomplishments. Instead of gathering (which has particular value) this kind of peer teaching could have been used most effectively.

Re-current education

Today I stumbled upon the term recurrent education, while searching for literature about academic development as form of in vivo learning. Duke (1992: xiv) explains recurrent education to mean "alternation of education with employment, leisure and other activities throughout the lifespan instead of completing all formal education before entering fully into adult life". He proceeds to indicate that educational resources often favour the young (and the richer) over the older (and poorer) and states that recurrent education "is a policy proposition to support livelong learning and site a 1973 document of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.

The word recurrent intrigued me. According to Dictionary.com, it means "recurs; occurring or appearing again, especially repeatedly or periodically". There is something amiss—surely there is growth, one never return to where you were?

The word current, according to Dictionary.com, means "prevalent; customary; the most recent". Surely the aim of lifelong learning is to 'equip' people with the prevalent knowledge. I would therefore suggest the improvement of the term by adding a hyphen: re-current education/learning.

Duke, C. 1992. The learning university—towards a new paradigm? Buckingham: SRHE & Open University Press

Benefits organisations may enjoy by hosting interns

Sides and Mrvica (2007:31-57) devote an entire chapter to benefits involved in hosting interns (or students for work-integrated learning:

• Contribution to the growth of the profession - 21st century learning organisations will consciously devote efforts to the growth of their professions
• Gaining knowledge of what is being taught in academic institutions - hosting interns create two-way communication between organisations and academic institutions
• Accessing new ideas, skills and training - interns are often a source of fresh, new and enthusiastic ideas
• Expanding the networking base of the organisation - this in turn impacts on professional development
• Developing relationships with academic institutions - invaluable influence on curriculum development
• Coaching and influencing a young career - interns are embarking on a career
• Developing and exercising supervisory skills - for professionals that mentor interns
• Expanding time and opportunities for special projects - the well-qualified interns serve as a resource to enable projects
• Procuring extra help - possibility of shadowing others
• Engageing in pre-employment screening - can assess the conduct and performance potential of interns
• Exposure to professions - help students make sure about their chosen career
• Internships as experience - it is difficult to secure a job without experience
• Lifelong learning - internships serve as foundation
• Portfolios as proof of qualifications - tangible examples of accomplishments
• Finding a mentor for internship experiences - accomplished professionals
• Networking after internships

Sides CH. & Mrvica A. 2007. Internships, theory and practice. New York: Baywood

Learning through work, flexibility and university for industry

Literature suggest a shift towards flexibility regarding learning outcomes of work-based learning. More than a decade ago (1998) the university for industry (UFI) materialised, focussing on learning through work (LTW), leading to university qualifications. Eight UK universities and colleges collaborate with LearningDirect in e-learning. Employers and/or individuals may negotiate work-based learner-managed projects and online learning that lead to qualifications.

Sources:

• http://www.ufi.com

• http://www.learningthroughwork.org/universities/

• Stephenson, J. & Saxton, J. 2005. Using the Internet to gain personalized degrees from learning through work: some experience from Ufi. Industry & Higher Education, 19(3), 249-258.

• Bosley, S. & Young, D. 2006. Online learning dialogues in learning through work. The Journal of Workplace Learning, 18(6), 355-366.

Learning in working life and competence development

The learning 'acquisition' process, says Knud Illeris, always has both a cognitive (or content)  and an emotional (or incentive) side. He identifies three dimensions at play in the learning situation:

1. The content - knowledge, understandings, skills, abilities, attitudes, etc.

2. The incentive - emotion, feelings, motivation and volition

3. Interaction, communication and cooperation

The first two are two ends of a horizontal axes and the third a vertical axes, as illustrated below:

Illeris depicts working life as learning environment with an inverted triangle, with individual learning potentials at the top (vertical axes) and the two ends of the horizontal axes:

1. Technical-organisational learning environment

2. Social-cultural learning environment

By combining these two triangles depictions Illeris produces a model for learning in working life:

 Illeris, K & Associates. 2004. Learning in working life. Copenhagen: Roskilde University Press.

Human Resources Development and the optimisation of potential

Business is concerned with profitability and productivity. Human Resources Management (HRM) deals with the optimisation of human resources (HR) in business. Human Resources Development (HRD) involves the optimisation of every individual, in terms of her/his potential. To achieve this a number of interrelated strategies are often used. The table below attempts to illustrate how some of these strategies relate to cooperative education.

A cooperative education paradigm has much in common with sound HRD. The focus of the co-op practitioner is determined in terms of her/his context. If educational-institution based, the individual is more educational-programme focused, student orientated and serving the appropriate occupational-field. If the “co-op practitioner” (HRD official) is commerce/industry based, the focus is organisational specific, staff-development orientated and liaison with relevant provider educational institution(s). If professional/vocational-association based, the focus is on that particular profession/vocation and the maintenance of standards.

Importance of mastering the "High Five"

A group of Career Development experts succinctly captured what career management is about:

1. Change is constant due to the fluidity and complexity
2. Follow your heart - your values, entrenched believes and interests drives you
3. Focus on the journey - The constant changes undermines and distracts, one therefore need to focus and enjoy the process/journey.
4. Stay learning - realise that most learning is not in formal settings, but in vivo day-to day. It is therefore important to become a self-directed learner and to develop a bank of evidence of your learning: this can be done by identifying your learning, recording/capturing it and to organise it. It is important to master reflecting, recording and action planning - especially to focus (3) on following your heart (2)
5. Be an ally - suggest a community, such as in a community of practise.

References:

Butter P, Davidson D, Day B, Gitterman A, Hackett H, Lamb T, McCormick J, Redekopp D, Robb M, Ross B, Tocher M (1995) - http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_pric/is_199500/ai_763126153/pg_1

Kenworthy-U'ren, A. 2008. Service-learning and career development learning: a synergistic coupling. In the Australian Learning & Teaching Council symposium pre-reading - http://www.usq.edu.au/resources/nagcasaltcsymposiumprereading120608.pdf

A pathway for work-, career- and future/life readiness

A Symposium held in Melbourne, 19 June 2008, aimed to share findings from research conducted in order to characterise best practice in the integration of career development learning into work integrated learning in Australian universities (visit http://www.usq.edu.au/nagcascarrickproject/symposium/default.htm for more information).

Career Development Learning is defined as an "overarching term pertaining to deliberate activities that go toward the improvement of an individual’s career. Career development can be conceived of as a professional activity performed by Career Development Practitioners and alike; it can also be conceived of as a subjective experience-in-process of developing one’s career" (p. 8 of the symposium pre-reading by Belinda McLennan, PVC Teaching and Learning Victoria University).

In the newly formed comprehensive universities, I imagine, there is often different perspectives between colleagues from the former academic university and from the former technikons in South Africa (now universities of technology) about the role of universities to prepare graduates for work readiness. I agree with a comment in the pre-reading that there is a fine balance between the needs of (a) commerce, industry, government and communities and (b) the university's role.

The pre-reading emphasise that Australian universities strengthened their commitment to blending academic learning and workplace experience, which is recognised as a unique and valuable learning environment/site. I quite like the notion of Learning in the workplace and/or Community (LiWC). It expands the potential learning sites to service learning. The pre-reading regards work-integrated learning (WIL) as an overarching/generic term to include career l;earning, engaged learning, internships, practica, clinical service, service learning, field work, cadetship, workplace projects, workplace research, sandwich years, etc. (I do not agree with the inclusion of cooperative learning, which is about learning in groups. Group learning can be used very well in reflecting about individual WIL to enhance learning.)

Three important and integrated readiness dimensions are highlighted:

• Work ready: Graduates moving seamlessly into employment ('hit the workplace running' - an ideal of the universities of technology) with employability skills, knowledge and experience; with the required graduate attributes needed by the occupational field; lifting productivity and addressing skills and labour shortages.
• Career Ready: Graduates have transferable skills and knowledge to manage their way through a changing world with intensified global competition, that is unpredictable and pluralistic; able to re-learn and re-inventing themselves (lifelong learning) as their careers proceed and develop.
• Future/life ready: Graduates have the skills and capabilities to continue to learn and contribute, as well as being adaptable as citizens of a changing world with new challenges.

I personally have a problem with an over emphasis of generic graduate attributes (critical cross-field outcomes in the South African contexts) as the be all and end all of in vivo learning. Yes, I agree that the workplace is an ideal environment to accomplish some or most of the critical cross-field outcomes. However, the occupational knowledge and skills that are best acquired through active engagement in real-life (in vivo) settings, are a very important aspect of the curriculum. The in vivo learning must be structured, properly guided, mentored and assessed to ensure graduate readiness. However, this further implies that for in vivo learning to succeed universities must have many partnerships to provide the necessary learning sites (environments) for the required learning to take place. These partners must be involved in the design, the planning and the delivery of the in vivo learning, and must be committed to the learning of students. Without such partnerships a university will struggle to offer the blended learning qualification/s.