Learning in vivo

Work-based mobile learning

“On-the-job training has been the educational ‘delivery’ [method of] choice over many years”, however, work-based mobile learning appears to be gaining interest as “one of the most important means of providing knowledge, skills and competencies” in the workplace observe Auer, Edwards and Zutin (2011: 219). His shift is due to increased wireless networks and mobile technology developments.

Apprenticeships represent a rudimentary form of work-based education. Modelled on the mediaeval guilds, the artisan personally tutored those wishing to learn the craft. They learned through “observation, imitation, practice and feedback” (p. 220). The increased pace of progress; greater volumes and complexity of learning required; and obsolescence of jobs resulted in more frequent career changes and the need to acquire entire new knowledge and skills.

Whereas traditionally work-based training consisted of formal education followed by organisational specific orientation and training; life-long learning became a necessity. Both individuals and organisations are more and more required to adapt—often quickly—to evolving situations in order to retain relevance in the marketplace.

Work-based mobile learning emerged as means to enable people to continue to function optimally. Unfortunately mature workers may oppose these developments due to fear for the unknown. To overcome this potential ‘fossilisation’ learning should be stimulating and enjoyable in order to become a habit of continuous growth and development. Furthermore, certain learning cannot be acquired in the confines of the workplace. This is where mobile learning allow for workers to learn and experience situations not commonly available in the workplace.

Auer, M.E.; Edwards, A. & Zutin, D.G. 2011. Online laboratories in interactive learning environments, pp. 219-248. In N. Pachler; C. Pimmer & J. Seipold (eds). 2011. Work-Based Mobile Learning— Concepts and Cases. Oxford: Peter Lang.

WIL “is not as intuitive as it may seem”

The 12 points below originates from a summary and explanation by Annie Murphy Paul about a recent report on the science of training. She points out that there are right ways and wrong ways (myths) regarding how to design, deliver, and implement training. I adapted the 12 points to work-integrated learning (WIL):

1. It’s what happens before and after WIL that matters. Universities should clearly communicate to students what the WIL is about and how it relates to curriculum of the qualification and the day one competencies expected from graduates.
2. The WIL guidelines should clearly specify what a student need-to-be master versus learning where and how to find information rather than be expected to retain all information in memory.
3. WIL would be more effective when it’s presented as an opportunity of which the benefits to students are emphasised.
4. Decay of skills acquired during WIL may be reduced by giving students subsequent opportunities to practice the skills and/or refresher orientation upon employment.
5. Workplace mentors could increase the motivation of students by making clear the link between what is being taught during WIL and how it will be used in the careers of students.
6. The best WIL occurs through the practice in the workplace and feedback by workplace mentors — the effectiveness of WIL can be increase by making the process more active and engaging for students.
7. Mentors should be made aware that unstructured practice by students without clear objectives; without relevant stimulation; and without appropriate feedback can teach students wrong lessons. Students “will get the most out of practice when they are provided with constructive and timely feedback that identifies what they may be doing wrong and how to fix it”.
8. Superficial exposure during WIL leads to poor retention and poor transfer; whereas deep learning promotes retention and transfer.
9. There is value—both strategically and emotionally—in teaching students to cope with errors made. Workplace mentors should guide students to correct mistakes made which will help students to understand the task in greater depth and will help them deal with errors on the job.
10. Technology and contemporary gadgetry would not necessary improve WIL. However, if implemented appropriately it may add to the effectiveness of WIL.
11. Left to their own devices, students “may not be knowledgeable or motivated enough to make wise decisions about how and what to learn”, sound guidance is important.
12. The “psychological fidelity—how accurately it evokes the feelings and the responses the worker will have on the job” of simulations is more important than physical fidelity a student will encounter as worker on the job.

Paul, A.M. 2012. Learning on the job: myth vs science (How do we really learn to do our jobs?). A post published 2 July 2012 on Wray Herbert's blog We're only Human.

Salas, E.; Tannenbaum, S.I.; Kraiger, K. & Smith-Jentsch, K.A. 2012. The Science of Training and Development in Organizations: What Matters in Practice. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(2) 74–101.

Instructional design for simulation

Literally, instructional design means “a set of events that facilitate learning” (instructional) and “a creative model” (design)—it includes a number of systematic processes to plan and create situations and/or events that would enhance the learning of individuals. Underlying instructional design are learning theory paradigms, based on various schools of thought, for example behaviourist—representing those believing that learning results in changed behaviour; cognitive—the proponents who believe adding of new concepts and ideas result in learning; and constructivist—those that believe that “learners construct knowledge for themselves” (Sidhu, 2010: 12-14).

There are hundreds of instructional design models. However, Reigeluth (1999, cited by Sidhu, 2010: 14) indicates that four major characteristics are common to instructional design, namely:

• “Design orientation,
• Identification of methods of instruction and situations,
• Methods of instruction that can be broken into more detail components methods, and
• Choice of Probalistic Methods”

Design theory is important because it renders “a vision of instruction early in the design process”—an ends of “how learners would be different as result of” the learning. The ultimate user plays a significant role, advocates Banathy (1991, cited by Sidhu, 2010: 14) who calls for a “much greater use of the notion of user-design”. Theory further provides guidance to instructional design at three levels according to Reigeluth (1999, cited by Sidhu, 2010: 14 and emphasis added):

• “Methods that best facilitate learning under different situations,
• Learning tool features that best allow an array of alternative methods to be made available to learners, [and]
• Systems features that best allow an instructional design team to design quality learning tools.”

Sidhu (2010: 14-15) prefers the ADDIE Model of design: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation.

Sidhu, M.S. 2010. Technology-assisted problem solving for engineering education: interactive multimedia applications. Hershey: Engineering Science Reference.

Employability depends on standing relative in hierarchy of jobseekers

Is Simon Roodhouse (2010: 25) remark cynical when he observes that a job-seeker’s understanding of the discipline or subject—which is a primary aim of university education—has little relevance to employability? What has relevance, however—citing Brown, Hesketh and Williams (2003), is on fulfilling the requirements of the specific job and “how one stands relative to others within a hierarchy of job seekers”. The latter in the current post-Apartheid South African context is further influenced by organisational corrective strategies with regard to the racial and gender mix of employees within departments.

Roodhouse (2010: 25) does add that higher education’s success in developing and delivering entry-to-work programmes is not doubted, neither higher education’s ability to qualifying people for work at higher levels doubted.

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (pp 21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

Brown, P.; Hesketh, A. & Williams, S. 2003. Employability in a Knowledge Driven Economy. Journal of Education and Work, 16(2), pp 107-126.

Disorganised and confusing connection of business needs with HE provision

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 26) concludes that “mechanisms to connect business needs with higher education provision are generally disorganised and confusing”. He starts the section of saying that “in higher education, workforce development is often referred to as work-based learning and is increasingly recognised as a field of study” (p. 24). He cites Costley’s (2001) observation that such work-based learning by higher education institutions incorporates “the learning people do, for, in and through work” (emphasis added) and quotes examples of longevity:

• Sandwich courses (academic study interspaced with work experience) and placements (elsewhere called (cooperative and work-integrated education) for longer than a century.
• Structured continuing professional development courses which recognise knowledge gained through work experience.
• Formalised accreditation of prior and experiential learning (APEL) processes.
• Familiarity of learning contracts as instruments in education.

Costley (2001, in Roodhouse 2010: 25) identify synonyms including “work based, work related, placement activities, elective modules, independent study, APEL, reach out, CPD, work based learning”. She further indicates that in most cases work based learning forms part of existing programmes at universities; and that learning outcomes and assessment criteria are embedded in the subject knowledge areas derived from scholarly activities and research.

The lack of sustained engagement of higher education in workforce development is difficult to conceptualise, observes Roodhouse (2010: 25) and highlights his observation with the following University Vocational Awards Council (2002):

We somehow seem to be incapable of learning from experience. Succeeding generations of employers are still marooned in tedious development project steering committees whose proceedings take place in academic jargon. Frustrated academics are still struggling to secure placements and projects with the very companies who are lambasting the quality of their graduates’ work readiness.

Roodhouse (2010: 25) speculates that it could also be “intellectual scepticism amongst the academic community, that employability which is associated with work-based learning is nothing more than a continuous conflict between individuals, market demands and fluctuations”.

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

Flexibility value of work-based learning

Simon Roodhouse (2010: 26) indicates that “there is an increased interest in workplace learning” and “that those in work are increasingly undertaking work-based learning qualifications” for a number of good reasons:

• People can see a direct relevance between their studies and their role in the workplace’
• Those studying can obtain support from employers.
• Work-based programmes enable individuals to structure their studies around their individual interests and professional development.
• Those studying may negotiate the focus of study, context, timescales and their assessment.
• Such programmes allow for flexible fitting into working and personal lives.
• Studying towards an accredited qualification adds to commitment to professional roles held.
• Seeking career progression and increased earning through programmes.

Roodhouse (2010: 26-27) cites Durrant, Rhodes and Young (2009) that indicate the value of work-based learning for employers, namely:

• Employees execute real work projects resulting in direct benefits for the employer.
• Employees are motivated and focus more specifically on the challenges of the organisation.
• Employees engaged in work-based learning programmes are intimately engaged in organisational processes.
• Tangible and visible investment in the development of employees results in increased loyalty.
• Improved employee retention; advancement potential as result of enhanced capabilities and becoming a sought-after employer.
• Enabling employees on their path of self-actualisation and achieving their full potential.
• Employers can partner with a university in developing programmes that support both the professional development of employees as well as organisation improvement.
• The organisational culture can be changed through work-based learning programmes and projects.
• It is a means towards achieving organisational business plans.
• The university has a stake in employee development.

Roodhouse, S. 2010. Defining and theorizing university work-based learning (21-27). In S Roodhouse & J Mumford. 2010. Understanding work-based learning. Surrey: Gower.

Reflection by word association

Reflection comes naturally for some, but other struggle to become reflective. Chapter 12 of A Student Guide to Clinical Legal Education and Pro Bono contains an activity which would enhance reflectivity. Kerrigan and Murray (2011) suggest thinking about different terms for each letter of the word REFLECTION and give some examples. My suggestion would be to apply some of the ‘synonyms’.

R	reviewing, reasoning, rethinking, recapturing, reconstructing, reactions, responses, refining, realising, rigorous, retrospective
E	experience, emotions, experimenting, externalising, evolving
F	feelings, focus, forward moving
L	lifelong learning, linking (ideas or experiences), limitless
E	external issues, ethics, exploring, evaluation, engagement, explanations
C	critique, conscious, concepts, changes, context, curiosity, conclusions, cyclical, consequences, consideration, challenge, cognitive
T	thinking, trying out new ideas, taking stock, transforming, testing
I	ideas, improving, insight, inquiry, interpretation, interaction, integration, implications, identifying, interrogation
O	observing, objective, open mind
N	new experiences, new ideas, noticing

Kerrigan, K & Murray, V. (eds) 2011. A Student Guide to Clinical Legal Education and Pro Bono. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan

Composing a simulation

Professor Margaret E. Gredler, at the Department of Educational Psychology of the University of South Carolina since 1973, obtained her PhD in Instructional Design Research. She published substantially in the field, among others the 1992 & 1994 editions of Designing and evaluating games and simulations.

In another post I captured the four questions Jones (1995 & 1997) recommends for designing a simulation. A synthesis of chapters 4 to 10 (Gredler 1992: 53 – 140) produced the following composition elements:

• Establish a framework/blueprint — instructional designers cannot simply present a curriculum issue, assign roles, and different perspectives; the simulation must be designed systematically in order that participants can interpret data rationally and devise strategies to resolve the issue at hand.
• The opening scene sets the stage for the simulation — it should be brief; and describe the issue in concrete but neutral terms.
• Nature/climate of the crisis or problem — the term ‘crisis’ originate from Greek krinen, which means to separate; to judge — the simulation is essentially a potential turning or branching point which participants are required to address.
• Designate the roles of participants in the simulation.
• Post simulation debriefing and reflection

Gredler, M. 1992. Designing and evaluating games and simulations, a process approach. London: Kogan Page.

The design of simulations

Literature on simulation design reveals numerous step-by-step designs, report Jones (1995: 60), often in the form of a sequential flow diagram, for example:

Jones (1995) finds such a sequential process restricting, because creating a simulation is not about a series of tasks. Instead designing simulations involve imagination, values, and consistency he says. Jones (1995: 61 & 1997: 121) recommends four basic questions for design:

1. What is the problem? — issue, situation (or what is the event about? — general picture)
2. Who are the participants? — roles, identities, powers
3. What do they have to do? — job, decision-making, function
4. What do they do it with? — documents, materials, instructions, existing knowledge

Jones cautions that these four questions should not be seen as steps; but rather a conscious underlying methodology. The questions should not be answered explicitly either—Jones (1995: 61) points out that all well designed simulations contain implicit answers to the four questions.

Jones, K. 1995. Simulations, a handbook for teachers and trainers. 3^rd edition. London: Kogan Page.

Jones, K. 1997. Games & simulations made easy. London: Kogan Page.

Simulations for Education; Virtual Worlds and Games

In seeking literature about simulations I find many mentioning games in the same breath, as well as simulation-games. Clark Aldrich (2009) observes that many practitioners have been struck by the paradox of sensing an overlap between virtual worlds, games, and simulations; yet knowing that they are not synonymous. He offers a succinct depiction:

The three often look similar, yet the differences are profound says Aldrich (2009):

• Games are fun, engaging activities usually used purely for entertainment, but they may also allow people to gain exposure to a particular set of tools, motions, or ideas.
• Simulations use rigorously structured scenarios carefully designed to develop specific competencies that can be directly transferred into the real world.
• Virtual worlds are multiplayer (and often massively multiplayer), three-dimensional, persistent social environments with easy-to-access building capabilities. They share with games and simulations the three-dimensional environment, but they do not have the focus on a particular goal, such as advancing to the next level or successfully navigating the scenario.

Aldrich, C. 2009. Virtual Worlds, Simulations, and Games for Education: A Unifying View. Innovate—a former official journal of online education of the Nova Southeastern University's Fischler School of Education and Human Services (FSEHS), Volume 5, Issue 5 (penultimate), June/July 2009. Retrieved electronically 23 October 2011 from: http://innovateonline.info/pdf/vol5_issue5/Virtual_Worlds,_Simulations,_and_Games_for_Education-__A_Unifying_View.pdf

 

Virtual simulations to replicate tabletop exercises

Offering “online students the same realistic training experience traditionally provided by an in-person tabletop exercise” say Anne M. Hewitt, Susan Spencer, Danielle Mirliss, and Riad Twal (2009). They caution, however, that technology access and student support must be addressed prior to the successful implementation of virtual world simulations.

A tabletop exercise is a simulated scenario designed to test the response capability, for example an emergency evacuation or health-threatening pandemic. Tabletop exercises are used extensively “to practice response to and recovery from a wide range of incidents” where participants need coordinate in real time to formulate comprehensive response strategies of multiple agencies.

Hewitt, Spencer, Mirliss, and Twal (2009) established a number of goals for their virtual version of the tabletop, namely:

• offer a real world activity for students,
• permit synchronous collaboration among students on campus and from various geographical locations,
• apply basic course concepts in a problem-based learning format, and
• introduce complex systems in a systematic way.

With the goals in mind, they explored available alternatives for virtual simulations and found many readily available emergency preparedness training platforms. However, several either did not allow for customisation or required technical capabilities exceeding institutional capacity. Hewitt, Spencer, Mirliss, and Twal (2009) determined that Play2Train was the most promising option to conduct training in Second Life. John Lester, academic program manager at Linden Labs, states that "Second Life gives both students and faculty a new medium for exploring things like distance learning, experiential learning, simulation, and scientific visualization in a fundamentally collaborative environment"

Hewitt, AM; Spencer, S; Mirliss, D & Twal, R. 2009. Preparing Graduate Students for Virtual World Simulations: Exploring the Potential of an Emerging Technology. Innovate—a former official journal of online education of the Nova Southeastern University's Fischler School of Education and Human Services (FSEHS), Volume 5 (final), Issue 6, August/September 2009. Retrieved electronically 23 Oct 2011 from: http://innovateonline.info/pdf/vol5_issue6/Preparing_Graduate_Students_for_Virtual_World_Simulations-__Exploring_the_Potential_of_an_Emerging_Technology.pdf

Definitions and essential attributes of games and simulations

Louise Sauvé; Lise Renaud and David Kaufman (2010) found little agreement among theoreticians and researchers about the meanings for the concepts of game and simulation. They tried to remedy this methodological shortcoming by carrying out systematic literature reviewing in order to establish definitions and articulate the essential attributes of games and simulations. Literature reviewed suggest that learning through games result in acquisition of new knowledge; “the development of intellectual skills (e.g., abstraction, anticipation, strategic thinking, problem resolution, lateral thinking, spatial representation, hand-eye coordination), and [the] development of behaviour and attitudes” (p. 5).

An essential attribute is a characteristic or specific property without which the concept in question can no longer be recognised as such. The six critical attributes of educational games are:

• player(s) — a game cannot work without at least one player making decisions while assuming a role
• fictitious (contrived) situation of conflict, competition or cooperation
• rules as set of conditions describing the relations between players and the environment — rules describe procedures; provide control and specify closure
• predetermined goal(s)
• artificial character — “If the constraints of reality [are] applied, the activity would become a simulation game rather than a game” (p. 5)
• educational character — from an implicit learning-centred purpose to need learn explicitly identified

Sauvé, Renaud and Kaufman (2010) group simulations into two broad categories, namely (a) simulations in the sciences and engineering used to experiment and test hypotheses; and (b) training simulations that offer environments simplifying reality and allow learning without the risks of specific “live” situations. The five attributes of educational simulations are:

• a model of reality defined as a system — the reality described represents one or several aspects of a complex real system; a model is a simplified mental image
• dynamic —the essential elements of reality are copied allowing the participant to control this reality; to study it at own pace and convenience
• simplification introduces a degree of abstraction needed to understand the functions and tasks of a system
• having validity, is faithful and accurate — “Fidelity” is a two-dimensional degree of similarity of the operational situation which is simulated, measured in terms of (a) physical characteristics—for example visual, spatial, kinesthetic; and (b) functional characteristics—for example the informational, stimulus and response options (the simpler the model, the bigger the risk of falsifying what it intend simulating)
• having educational value — varied realistic examples imitate the real-world

The seven attributes of educational simulation-games or of “serious games” (as alternative term) are:

• a model of a real or fictitious system
• simplified
• dynamic
• players of varying numbers
• in competition or cooperation
• rules
• an educational character

Sauvé, Renaud and Kaufman (2010: 17) summarise the essential attributes as follow, pointing out that a game is not a simulation; a simulation is distinguished from a game by a model; and a simulation-game is a ‘serious game’:

GAME	SIMULATION	SIMULATION-GAME
Artificial character	Reality defined as a system	Reality defined as a system
	Model Simplified Dynamic Faithful, accurate and valid	Model Simplified Dynamic
Player(s) Conflict (competition) Rules Predetermined goal (to win)		Player(s) Conflict (competition) Rules Predetermined goal (to win)

Sauvé, L; Renaud, L & Kaufman, D. 2010. Games, Simulations, and Simulation Games for Learning, pp 1-26. In D Kaufman & L Sauvé (Eds) 2010. Educational game play and simulation environments case studies and lessons learned. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Four domains & eight dimensions map the WIL landscape

Based on the diversity of interests addressed in 28 ALTC funded projects a review framework or matrix (p. 1) has been generated to contextualising the projects. The scope is described more fully in the literature review (pp. 5-15) of the Good practice report: work-integrated learning. A populated WIL review scoping matrix is included in the report as Appendix A (p. 81).

Domains Dimensions	Leadership & management	Education	Partnerships	Context
Purposes
Curriculum
Pedagogy
Legalities & ethics
Infrastructure
Quality assurance
Student matters
Staff matters

Orrell, J. 2011. Good practice report: work-integrated learning. Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC). Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR). 

Journal of Cooperative Education and Internships now open access

JCEI access for individuals is now open to the public at no charge! Vol 45 Issue 01 has just been published:

Topic	Page
International centre of social science education and research in The Hague, The Netherlands.	5
Development of Learning Outcomes Assessment Methods for Co-operative Education Programs	11
Where’s WIL? Including work-integrated learning in descriptions of what it is that academics do	34
Comparative Curriculum Analysis of Mechanical Engineering Technology Programs at Purdue University and the National Taipei University of Technology	45
Mentoring Latinos in STEM: Transforming Struggling Co-op Students into Savvy Professionals	53
Developing an Online Learning Community for Engineering, Cooperative-Education Students: A Design-Based Research Study	67
Professionalising Accounting Education – The WIL Experience	80
Responding to Rapid Change in Higher Education: Enabling University Departments Responsible for Work Related Programs Through Boundary Spanning	94

JCEI is offered through EBSCO's library subscription for institutions. Request your university library to purchase subscription.

International Handbook for Cooperative and Work-integrated Education

 
I am proud to have been a contributor with Maureen Drysdale, Caitlin Chiupka, Nancy Johnston to the 2nd edition of this publication as authors of chapter 2: Towards a definition and models of practice for cooperative and work-integrated education. Click here for the table of contents and here for an online order form.

 

Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide

The Council on Higher Education (CHE) in South Afrca released its Higher Education Monitor No 12, namely Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide, in August 2011. The content includes:

1) Introduction to WIL,

2) A conceptual framework for WIL,

3) Curriculum design and development for WIL,

4) Teaching and Learning for WIL,

5) Assessment for/of WIL,

6) Partnerships for WIL, and

7) The management of WIL.

 as well as a glossary of terms with hyperlinks to many online resources which are useful for the implementation of WIL, and obviously a bibliography.

 

The experience of learning from a live person

The words of the post title is taken from the first line of page 277 of 'Poser, my life in twenty-three yoga poses'. Claire Dederer (2011), in my opinion, captured here what true learning-in-experience is about.

A colleague asked me today about terms in use for various kinds of learning from real-life experiences. People assign meaning to terms they embrace or they use terms as vessels to convey meaning they assign. Terms get politised. Terms belong to certain followings or communities of practice (I've used used such).

Imagine the medieval guilds. A master teaching apprentices.

Claire got an assignment to write a piece for The New York Times on the way the Naropa University 'integrated contemplative practice into its coursework' (p. 266). The PR office of the university arranged that she spent a week visiting classes experiencing. Claire took up yoga and meditation several years before. Her experiences at Naropa, however, made a deep impression on her. Synchronistically she enrolled for a beginning class at the Yoga Workshop by the ashtanga yoga master Richard Freeman. Claire watched him performing the jump-through and got so inspired she believed deep in her heart that she can do it (p. 276) and remark: "Yoga is the closest thing many of us will ever encounter to a pure oral tradition. No substitutions, so far, have even come close to approximating the experience of learning from a live person. As I discovered early in my practice, learning from a video doesn't quite work, nor does a book ..."

If a learning enviroment can be created to let students experience this kind of grasp and mastery, then true cooperative & work-integrated education (or whatever terminology is prefered) takes place. In Claire Dederer's words (277) "Many writers have talked about the mystery of transmission. ... Maybe it's simply seeing the [yoga] poses done in three dimensions. But it feels like something more than that. When your teacher [mentor/workplace supervisor] shows you how something is done, there is a feeling of possibility, a transmittal of something like faith. Yes, this can be done [or, oh that is how it is done correctly]. I'm seeing it right before my eyes."

 
Dederer, C. 2011. Poser, my life in twenty-three yoga poses. London: Bloomsbury.

Collective work-based learning

Raelin (2000: 66-100) discusses three kinds of collective work-based learning, namely:

• Action Learning
• Community of Practice
• Action Science

Action Learning

It is an educational strategy that entails groups seeking to derive learning from real-time (in vivo) problem solving. In about 1975, after conversion to adult membership of my congregation I engaged in entry-level instruction of catechumens. At the time the notion of learning by doing got impressed upon my mind. In trying to bring about learning, I have subsequently always tried to build in activity in learning facilitation. Raelin (2000: 66-7) remarks that such activities are useful; but neither sufficient to enable conversion of theory into tacit knowledge; nor for participants/delegates to challenge and reflect on their own theoretical assumptions. Only if people take real positions; are obliged to make moral judgements and required to defend those under pressure do real learning occur. Action learning teams present itself as a means to introduce work-based learning into a work environment.

Community of Practice

Raelin (2000: 75) asserts that "communities of practice evolve as people united in a common enterprise develop a shared history as well as particular values, beliefs, ways of talking, and ways of doing things". Membership is spontaneous and through involvement with one another—mutual engagement—in the process of pursuing the same practice. Problem solving together becomes (as a community) becomes a natural social activity and meanings are informally negotiated. Often knowledge creation is tacit and practices become interpersonally instinctive. A "shared repertoire, including routines, words, tools, ways of doing things, stories, gestures, concepts, and the like that symbolize their shared practice" (Raelin 2000: 76)emerges. Members of a community of practice often serve as gate keepers with regard to the practice.

Raelin (2000: 78) observes that facilitation might accelerate the process toward the emergence of a community of practice, but he expresses reservation if an organisation as a whole could become a community of practice—there are just too many barriers and politics. He discusses the use of Future Search (pp 24-25 of PsychDigest Vol 1 No 3; Download FutureSearch_AfronautHigherEducationlaunchpad-posternarrative) technology (p. 83), Open Space Technology (p. 84) and Virtual Team Learning (p. 85), but cautions about the latter that nobody has yet "invented a technology that replaces a pitcher of beer".

Action Science

When I saw this heading I have been most intrigued. Raelin (2000: 89) defines action science as "a work-based intervention strategy for helping learners increase their effectiveness is social situations through heightened awareness of their action and interaction assumptions". It is a form of 'double-loop' learning derived from becoming aware of a mismatch between your values and your actions and an internal commitment to embracing new or other. The term reflection-in-action—described as rethinking to discover how and what that has been done contributed to the expected or unexpected outcome—is preferred by some, e.g. Donald Schön (p. 90). A member of a community of practice would typically offer a frame of the situation a hand. The members collectively would then reflect upon the frame/s and start testing the underlying assumptions and reasoning processes that surface. The aim is to narrow the inconsistencies between espoused (what is advocated) theories versus theories-in-use (actual practice).

Raelin (2000: 90) agrees with Habermas's views and points out three types of knowledge:

1. Technical knowledge entails "predictions about observable events, physical or social"; may result in empirical or theoretical discourse; and "relies upon hypothetico-deductive logic".
2. Practical knowledge involves "social norms, ideals, values, and moral decisions"; that in the absence of empirical tests rely on tradition and authority. However, consensus derived through dialogue is preferred and metaphors often used to resolve contradictions. Ideally, practical discourse searches for meaning rather than trying to outlining causality.
3. Emancipatory knowledge is gained through critical self-reflection about the taken-for-granted assumptions. The validity of premises for interpretation or understanding is tested through reflective discourse.

People are often socially conditioned—Model I behaviour—which is "characterised by a need to control, maximize winning, suppress emotions, and be rational" Raelin (2000: 91) with minimal learning, but reinforcement of existing socialisation. In contrast, Model II behaviour, "is based on directly observable data" at hand and entails exchange of viewpoints—resulting in increased learning and producing of intended end-results. The table below (based Raelin 2000: 94) on serves as illustration:

	Model I behaviour	Model II behaviour
Contextual cue or triggering condition	An elderly woman is curious about the use of SMSes	Another elderly person, similar age, notices how efficient SMS communication is
Underlying assumptions	Cellphones are complex, I would not master it.	Believe it is possible to master the use of the SMS function of a cellphone
Action strategies	Is shown by a user (grandchild) what an SMS is and how to go about creating a message, sending it, receiving it, retrieving it and responding	Ask a user to demonstrate how to go about creating a message, sending it, receiving it, retrieving it and responding. Make notes how to go about and try SMSing.
Consequences in the behavioural world for learning	Promptly forgets and ask again in future when observing fellow residents of the retirement facility receiving SMSes	Master the use of the SMSes and enjoy the benefit of keeping in touch with relatives and friends

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Work-based learning model

Raelin (2000: 49-65) theorises about work-based learning firstly by comparing theory and practice modes of learning, there after explicit versus tacit forms of knowledge. He then builds a conceptual model by first looking at individual work-based learning, in terms of the two mentioned modes of learning and the two forms of knowledge:

	Explicit	Tacit
Theory:	Conceptualisation	Experimentation
Practice:	Reflection	Experience

He next turns to the organisation, as collective, and builds further on his model of work-based learning:

	Explicit	Tacit
Theory:	Applied science	Action learning
Practice:	Action science	Community of practice

Then he completes his pyramid-shape model (Raelin 2000: 64)

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Learning organisation and work based learning

As individuals we (need to) learn lifelong in order to continue to actualise ourselves, we engage with our environment and grow (Raelin 2000: 27).

It is what we think we know already that often prevents us from learning — Claude Bernard (Raelin 2000: 27).

Organisations, as a collective, also need to learn in order to maintain themselves and improve. Raelin (2000: 28) observes that "Some pundits sell 'organizational learning' as another recipe for competitive advantage, but in fact it is more than that", he argues and indicates that the modus Vivendi (mode of 'living') of organisations that enables it to sustain—an ethos of ever adaptability to environmental surroundings, acting on intelligence and 'learning their way out' of challenges (Raelin 2000: 28).

• Trial-and-error learning only occurs after blunders
• True organisational learning should happen naturally when succeeding and upon breakthroughs
• There should be a deliberate continuous reflection

Learning organisations generate knowledge through a free exchange of information and experimentation. Whereas the focus of knowledge management is on improving accessibility and sharing of knowledge, the focus of organisational learning is concerned with the modus Vivendi, observes Raelin (2000: 29).

Raelin, J.A. 2000. Work-based learning—the new frontier of management development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.